POWER  DEVELOPMENT 
OF  SMALL  STREAMS 


CARL  C.HARRIS 
SAMUELO.RICE 


i 


For  men  may  come  and  men  may  go, 
But  I  go  on  forever. 

— The  Brook,  by  Alfred  Tennyson. 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT 
OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

A  Book  for  All  Persons  Seeking 

Greater  Comfort  and  Higher  Efficiency 

in  Country  Homes,  Towns 

and  Villages. 


By 
CARL  C.  HARRIS 

Member  American  Society  Mechanical  Engineers 

Boston  Society  Civil  Engineers 

Vice-Pres.  and  Treas.  Rodney  Hunt  Machine  Co. 

and 

SAMUEL  O.  RICE 

Director  of  Publicity  and  Assistant  Professor  of  Journalism, 
University  of  Kansas,  Kansas  City 


RODNEY  HUNT  MACHINE  COMPANY 
ORANGE,  MASSACHUSETTS,  U.  S.  A. 


H3 


Copyright,  1920 

BY  RODNEY  HUNT  MACHINE  COMPANY 
Orange,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A. 


4  til  Edit  ion 

Planographed  in  U.  S.  A. 
By 

SPAULDING-MOSS  COMPANY 

Boston 


Introduction 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  furnish  the  layman  in  an 
accurate  and  simple  way,  a  practical  and  working  knowledge  of 
installing  and  operating  small  water  power  plants  for  furnishing 
country  homes,  towns,  and  villages  with  electric  light,  power, 
heat,  water  supply,  and  fire  protection.  Technical  language  has 
throughout  been  eliminated  or  made  so  plain  there  can  be  no  con- 
fusion to  any  reader.  Too  long  has  the  knowledge  necessary  for 
the  developing  of  the  thousands  of  country  home,  town  and 
village  water  power  opportunities  been  buried  in  the  technicalities 
of  engineering  works  or  to  be  obtained  only  by  the  expensive 
process  of  employing  an  engineer  who  is  an  expert  on  water  power 
development.  This  book  removes  that  hindrance  to  the  country 
home,  the  town  or  village  obtaining  greater  comfort,  efficiency  and 
almost  all  the  modern  conveniences  now  denied  them.  The 
possibilities  of  power  development  on  small  streams  are  practically 
unlimited.  There  are  no  legal  tangles  or  governmental  restric- 
tions that  face  many  large  power  projects.  The  small  power 
plant  is  the  cheapest  source  possible  for  the  country  home,  town 
or  village  to  obtain  electricity,  power,  heat,  and  water  supply. 
The  small  power  plant  is  well  within  the  reach  of  the  average 
country  dweller,  or  the  town  or  village.  Water  power  develop- 
ment has  reached  the  stage  where  there  is  a  water  wheel  for  every 
stream  from  the  tiniest  rivulet  to  the  great  river. 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  LA  HACIENDA,  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
The  Mayhew  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  Alpha  Cement  Com- 
pany, Easton,  Pa.,  the  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
and  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service,  for  their  courtesy 
in  loaning  drawings  and  supplying  valuable  information  which 
has  helped  make  the  book  more  complete  and  useful. 


M199210 


Contents 

Page 
INTRODUCTION      .       ....       .       .       .       .<       5 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  WILLINGNESS  OF  WATER  TO  WORK       .  .        .        13 

The  small  volume  of  water  necessary  to  develop 
one  horse  power  and  light  two  average  homes — Pouring 
water  with  milk  pails  to  develop  one  horse  power — The 
greatest  undeveloped  natural  resource  in  America. 

CHAPTER  II 
How  A  COUNTRY  HOME  GOT  A  WATER  POWER  PLANT  15 

The  experience  of  a  farmer  in  pioneering  in  home 
water  power  development — Lighting  church,  school, 
and  home  with  a  small  home  plant — One  avoidable  mis- 
take— Choosing  the  water  wheel — A  revelation  in 
water  power  opportunities — A  homemade  power  plant 
— Installing  a  9-inch  turbine  wheel,  an  electric  genera- 
tor, a  pump,  circle  saw,  feed  mill,  grindstone,  and  emery 
wheel. 

CHAPTER  III 
A  WHEEL  FOR  EVERY  STREAM         ....        .        .        .       22 

Water  wheels  80  to  90  per  cent  efficient — The  best 
gasoline  engines  45  per  cent  efficient — Steam  plants 
10  to  35  per  cent  efficient — Water  wheels  for  the  tiniest 
spring  branches  and  for  great  rivers,  brooks,  and  creeks 
— Rim-Leverage  wheels — Approximate  costs. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Page 
INVOICING  A  SMALL  STREAM      .       ^;.;     .        .        .        .     '   ...       26 

Plain  and  easy  methods  of  measuring  a  stream's 
capacity  for  developing  power — The  chip  method  of  de- 
termining a  stream's  flow — The  dry-foot  method  of 
learning  the  head  or  fall  of  water  of  a  stream — What  is 
a  horse  power — How  much  water  must  fall  one  foot  to 
develop  one  horse  power — Increasing  the  power  in  the 
same  quantity  of  water  by  increasing  the  fall  of  the 
water — Small  water  wheels  for  high  falls — Large  wheels 
for  sluggish  streams  and  low  falls. 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  WEIR  METHOD  OF  MEASURING  WATER        .        .        .       33 

Using  the  exact  methods  a  water  power  expert 
would  employ  and  getting  exactly  the  same  results — 
The  weir — How  to  make  it — Placing  the  weir — Using 
the  weir — Table  of  weirs — How  use  of  water  power  has 
grown — Conservation — True  conservation  in  small 
stream  power  plants. 

CHAPTER  VI 
THE  TURBINE  WHEEL        .      '.       '".•  '    .        .        '.        .        .        37 

Windmills  the  most  familiar  type  of  turbine — Elec- 
tric fans  and  boat  propellers  are  turbines — Steam 
turbines — The  turbine  a  metal  whirligig  in  a  case — 
Only  one  working  part — No  valves,  complex  parts  or 
gears  to  get  out  of  order — The  most  durable  and 
efficient  power  producing  machine  yet  invented — The  | 
runner— The  runner's  buckets — Reaction  wheels — Im- 
pulse wheels — Compactness  of  turbine  water  wheels 
— A  turbine  water  wheel  in  the  kitchen — Different 
arrangements  of  turbine  wheels — The  vertically- 
mounted  turbine — The  horizontally-mounted  turbine 
—Turbines  in  pairs  and  series — Direct  connecting 
—Belt  and  gear  connecting — Casings  and  gates. 


CHAPTER  VII 

Page 
THE  RIM-LEVERAGE  WHEEL 49 

Overshot  and  undershot  water  wheels  more  cor- 
rectly termed  rim-leverage  wheels — Man's  first  power 
machine — Inefficient  overshot  and  undershot  wheels 
—The  modern  efficient  and  scientific  little  rim-leverage 
wheel — Sizes  of  rim-leverage  wheels — Rim-leverage 
wheels  for  driving  pump  for  home  water  works  and  fire 
protection — Rim-leverage  wheels  for  generating  elec- 
tricity and  driving  machinery — Examples  of  rim- 
leverage  wheels  and  pump  combination — Durability, 
efficiency,  and  picturesque  qualities — Pumping  pure 
water  with  impure  water — The  wheel  for  the  tiniest 
spring  branch. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ELECTRICITY  IN  THE  HOME 55 

A  plain  and  comprehensive  explanation  of  generat- 
ing, handling,  and  using  electric  current — What  is 
electricity? — Alternating  and  direct  current  generators 
— Batteries  develop  only  direct  current — Magnetic 
flux — Magnetos — The  simplest  electric  generator — 
Make-up  of  the  home  water  power  electric  plant — An 
ideal  home  electric  plant — Elasticity  of  water  power 
electric  plants — The  storage  battery — Reducing  cost  of 
fire  insurance — Explanation  of  electrical  terms,  watts, 
volts,  amperes,  ohms — Sizes  of  home  electric  light  and 
power  plants — Limits  of  storage  batteries — Home 
electric  plants  absolutely  safe — Charging  batteries — 
Charging  panel — Resistance  of  conductors — Systems 
of  electric  wiring — Sizes  and  insulating  of  wires — Con- 
venience and  labor-saving  in  electricity — Durability — 
Eliminating  toil  and  chores. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Page 

DAMS      .        .       .        .        , 68 

Temporary  and  permanent  dams — Ancient  kings 
lacked  technical  knowledge  to  build  permanent  dams — 
Dams  depend  on  proportion  and  balance,  not  on  masses 
of  material — Safe  and  lasting  dam  construction — 
When  dams  need  not  be  built — Earth  dams — Impor- 
tance of  spillways — Footing  for  dams — Dams  on  rock 
— Dams  on  other  foundations — Cheapest  and  handiest 
material  best  for  dam  construction — Crib  dams  the 
universal  dam — Priming  plank — Masonry  dams — 
Pressure  of  water  on  dams — Arch  and  gravity  dams — 
Concrete  dams — Frame  dams — Money  saving  in  buy- 
ing designs  for  dams — Preventing  washing  out  at  the 
ends  of  dams. 

CHAPTER  X 

CONDUITS       .      •  . 85 

Carrying  water  from  intake  to  water  wheel — 
Millraces — Pipes — Penstocks — Flumes — Steel,  iron, 
and  wood  construction  of  pipes  and  penstocks — More 
water  through  a  pipe — Flumes  of  wood  and  concrete — 
Design  of  flume  by  United  States  Reclamation  Ser- 
vice. See  pp.  95-99 — Best  shapes  for  greatest  volumes 
— Mill  races  of  proper  shape — Concrete  lining. 

CHAPTER  XI 
CONCRETE      .        .        ,        .   \   .,       .        .        .     ,  . .: ..-...-..      .     100 

Standard  mixture  of  concrete — Adapting  standard 
mixtures  to  cheaper  and  better  home  use  by  using  native 
materials — Importance  of  clean  stone — Proper  grading 
of  aggregate — Clean  water — Proportions  of  lime  in 
water-proofing — Different  strengths  of  concrete  for  dif- 
ferent work — Depreciating  concrete  with  too  much 
water — How  to  mix  concrete  by  hand — The  best  type 
of  machine  concrete  mixers — The  mixingboard — Dust 
in  quarry  screenings — Forms  for  concrete — Concrete 
cisterns  —  Walls  and  floors  —  Finishing  —  Concrete 
mortar. 


CHAPTER  XII 

Page 
IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE       ...  ...     115 

Pumping  by  water  power  and  centrifugal  pumps 
from  streams  or  wells  lessens  harm  from  droughts  on 
farms  in  the  rain  belt — Draining  low  fields  in  wet  sea- 
sons by  using  centrifugal  pumps — A  successful  example 
on  a  Missouri  farm — Friction  of  water  in  pipe. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

PURE  WATER .      119 

The  whole  world  water  marked — The  world's 
greatest  manifestation  of  energy  in  tides,  streams, 
evaporation,  and  condensation  of  water — Rain  water — 
Only  pure  water  is  distilled  water — Soft  water  and 
hard  water — Classification  of  natural  waters — How  to 
soften  permanent  and  temporary  hard  water — Lime 
and  soda  ash — Purifying  water  with  chlorinated  lime — 
Pond  water  purer  than  stream  water — Pollution  of 
streams  and  wells — Germs — Their  natural  enemies — 
Filters — Guarding  the  home  water  supply — The  better 
varieties  of  fish  for  stocking  home  waters — Tempera- 
ture of  water  for  trout. 

CHAPTER  XIV 
INSTALLING  A  WATER  POWER  PLANT 127 

Common  sense  the  chief  requisite — Importance  of 
adequate  tail  race — Diagram  of  installation — Ready- 
made  power  plants — Air-inlet — Trash  racks — Rakes — 
Gates — Gate  hoists — Rotary  fire  pumps  for  water 
works  systems  and  fire  protection — Driving  farm 
machinery  in  power  plant  by  connecting  with  water 
wheel — Driving  machinery  at  a  distance  from  water 
power  plant  by  using  electric  motors — Household  con- 
veniences that  make  the  country  home  with  a  water 
power  electric  plant  more  liveable  than  the  average  city 
home — Why  be  a  Hivite? 


APPENDIX 

Page 
READY  INFORMATION  FOR  WATER  POWER  USERS        .        .139 

The  Scientific  American  states  a  problem  that 
this  book  has  solved,  the  standardizing  of  water  power 
plants  for  home  use — The  space  occupied  by  a  turbine 
wheel — Ratings  for  turbine  wheels  of  different  sizes 
under  different  heads  and  the  quantities  of  water  re- 
quired— Pressure  of  water  at  different  elevations — A 
more  exact  weir  table — Measuring  large  streams — 
Capacities  and  diameters  of  pipe — Pipe  friction- — 
Velocity  of  water — Weights  and  figures — American,  or 
Brown  and  Sharpe  (B.  &  S.),  wire  gage — Lumber 
measure  in  board  feet — Rule  for  finding  the  length  of 
belts — Comparison  of  rubber  and  leather  belting — 
Horse  power  transmitted  by  single  and  by  double 
leather  belts — Miscellaneous  weights — Areas  and  cir- 
cumferences of  circles — Fractions  of  lineal  inch  in 
decimals — Lineal  inches  in  decimal  fractions  of  a 
lineal  foot — Friendly  help  for  nothing  to  prospective 
developers  of  home,  village,  town,  industrial,  and 
commercial  water  power  plants  for  generating  elec- 
tricity, supplying  other  power  and  pumping  water — 
A  list  of  questions  for  the  investigator  of  Power 
Development  of  Small  Streams. 


THE    WILLINGNESS    OF    WATER    TO    WORK  13 


Power  Development  of  Small  Streams 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  WILLINGNESS  OF   WATER    TO   WORK 

FOUR  men  with  milk  pails  dipping  water  from  a  tank  and  pour- 
ing it  into  a  garden  furrow  would  form  only  a  tiny  rivulet. 
Yet  if  they  poured  the  same  quantity  of  water  into  a  downspout 
eleven  feet  long  they  would  generate  one  horse  power  of  energy, 
providing  there  was  a  water  wheel  at  the  bottom  end  of  the  down- 
spout to  catch  and  transform  the  force  of  the  falling  water  into 
electricity  or  other  mechanical  energy.  One  horse  power  alone 
has  enough  energy  to  furnish  electric  current  for  eighteen  4O-watt 
or  thirty-six  2o-watt  lights  and  therewith  to  light  two  average 
country  homes,  barns,  barnyards  and  outbuildings  complete, 
besides  providing  heat  for  ironing  and  power  for  such  small  work 
as  washing,  churning,  sewing,  and  electric  fans.  And  one  horse 
power  can  be  produced  by  seven  and  one-half  gallons  of  water 
falling  eleven  feet  a  second  to  a  water  wheel  or  turbine. 

This  homely  illustration,  four  men  "sloshing"  water  out  of  a 
tank  with  milk  pails  to  provide  water  power  to  operate  eighteen 
large  or  thirty-six  smaller  electric  lights,  or  to  furnish  heat  and 
power,  pictures  sharply  and  accurately  the  wonderful  willingness 
of  water  to  work.  Water  power  is  the  greatest  undeveloped 
natural  resource  in  America  today.  The  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  estimates  that  thirty  million  horse  power  is  going 
to  waste  in  the  streams  that  have  not  been  put  to  work.  The 
"Journal  of  Electricity",  No.  i,  Volume  41,  says  a  maximum  of 
fifty-four  million  horse  power  and  a  minimum  of  twenty-eight 
million  horse  power  still  await  possible  development  in  the  streams 
of  the  Nation.  Beyond  doubt  power  development  of  small 
streams  is  the  most  democratic  of  all  our  natural  resources.  It 
is  the  one  greatest  natural  resource  available  to  the  largest  number 
of  Americans,  since  thousands  of  farms,  towns,  and  villages  with 


14  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

brooks,  creeks,  -rivers,  and  spring  branches  have  this  cheapest  of 
power  ever  ready  at  hand.  Few  farm  streams  but  are  capable  of 
being  harnessed  practically  and  cheaply,  at  least  to  pump  water, 
or  to  do  more  than  that,  to  furnish  light,  heat,  and  power  for  a 
single  farm  or  a  country  home,  or  for  a  group  of  homes  or  an  entire 
village  or  town. 

There  is  one  horse  power  to  be  had  from  the  milk-pail  rivulet. 
There  are  three,  four,  five,  ten,  twenty,  possibly  greater  horse 
power  to  be  had  from  the  farm  brook  that  a  man  can  step  across. 
There  is  enough  power  running  to  waste  in  the  shallow,  rippling 
creek,  spanned  by  a  footlog,  easily  to  take  the  drudgery  out  of  a 
half  dozen  country  homes  that  still  use  kerosene  lamps  and  employ 
tired  muscles  to  carry  water  and  to  other  work  that  should  be 
done  by  machinery.  That  same  little  stream  is  the  most  practical 
and  cheapest  chance  for  the  village's  best  development — by  in- 
stalling a  small  water  power  plant  to  furnish  electricity  and  fire 
protection  for  the  community.  Truly  the  willingness  of  water  to 
work  is  a  wonderful  thing.  Water  in  motion  is  exactly  equal  to 
water  under  pressure,  and  the  brook,  spring  branch  or  creek  will 
run  down  a  flume  or  pipe  and  operate  the  machinery  of  a  home 
power  plant  and  machine  shop  just  as  readily  as  it  will  splatter 
down  a  riffle  or  tumble  over  a  boulder.  All  it  wants  is  a  chance  to 
work. 


HOW    A    COUNTRY    HOME    GOT    A    WATER    POWER    PLANT  15 


CHAPTER  II 

How  A  COUNTRY  HOME  GOT  A  WATER  POWER  PLANT 

BURNING  of  a  country  church  in  a  fire  caused  by  a  kerosene 
lamp  led  to  the  installing  of  a  farm  water  power  plant  that  is 
typical  in  experience  and  in  practical  results.  It  is  a  guidepost 
to  any  man  or  woman  who  lives  in  a  country  place  that  has  a 
brook,  spring  branch  or  creek,  or  who  lives  in  a  small  town  or 
village  near  a  small  stream.  The  congregation,  in  a  meeting  in  the 
district  school  to  apportion  the  assessments  for  building  a  larger 
and  better  church,  was  discussing  lighting  systems,  when  a  farmer 
named  Rowlands  made  the  epochmaking  talk,  hardly  a  speech,  of 
that  neighborhood.  Mr.  Rowlands  lives  about  a  mile  across 
fields  from  the  church. 

"As  a  member  of  the  building  committee,"  said  Mr.  Row- 
lands, "I  have  been  entrusted  with  the  lighting  question.     As 
some  of  you  know,  I've  been  figuring  on  putting  in  at  my  home"- 
He  mentioned  a  very  excellent  gas  lighting  system,  one  that  is 
approved  by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

"It  would  cost  me,"  he  continued,  "about  $300  to  pipe  my 
house,  put  in  shades  and  fixtures  and  a  complete  gas  lighting 
plant.  It  would  cost  the  church  about  the  same  sum.  Now 
you've  got  me  down  for  $300  on  the  new  church.  You'll  spend  my 
$300  for  a  lighting  plant.  Well,  I've  been  figuring  further.  I 
don't  want  to  make  a  cent  off  the  church,  but  if  you  will  cancel 
my  assessment  I  can  put  in  a  little  water  power  plant  on  the  creek 
on  my  farm  and  I'll  guarantee  to  furnish  enough  electricity  to 
light  both  the  church  and  the  school.  It  will  cost  you  about  #15 
or  $20  to  run  a  church  lighting  plant.  My  way  it  won't  cost  the 
church  a  cent  and  it  will  cut  down  the  fire  hazard  and  the  insurance 
rate  on  both  the  church  and  the  school.  If  I  fall  down  I'll  agree 
to  put  in  the  gas  lighting  system  for  the  church  at  my  own  expense. 
I'll  put  this  in  writing,  if  you  like." 


l6  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

It  would  be  nice  to  write  how  Brother  Rowlands's  plan  ful- 
filled all  expectations  in  lighting  the  church.  But  it  did  not  do  it. 

It  was  a  half-way  failure  at  first. 
The  plant  was  in  operation  and 
furnishing  electric  light,  power 
and  heat  at  the  Rowlands 
home  with  entire  satisfaction 
several  months  before  the 
church  was  finished.  But 
when  the  church  lights  were 
turned  on  they  were  decid- 
edly dim  and  inadequate. 
For  several  weeks  almost  the 
whole  congregation  searched 
for  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 
Then  Mr.  Rowlands  com- 
plained to  the  manufacturer 
of  his  electric  generator. 
A  TYPE  OF  TURBINE  WATER  WHEEL,  The  manufacturer  replied  in 
SIMPLE  AND  ALMOST  EVERLASTING  a  letter  ask}ng  a  half-dozen 

questions.     When    those    questions    were    answered,    he   smiled 
and  wrote: 

"My  dear  Mr.  Rowlands:  Why  did  you  not  tell  us  you 
wanted  to  carry  current  across  country  two  miles.  The  trouble 
is  in  the  size  of  wire  from  your  plant  to  the  church.  It  is  too 
small.  In  the  back  part  of  the  booklet  we  sent  you  is  a  table  of 
wire  sizes  for  varying  currents  and  distances." 

Then  he  gave  specific  directions  for  taking  down  and  selling 
the  old  line  and  replacing  it  with  larger  wire.  He  suggested 
minor  changes,  the  correcting  of  a  faulty  point  or  two  in  insula- 
tion. After  that  the  lights  burned  brightly  in  the  church  and  the 
school  and  there  was  no  more  trouble,  except  one  night  a  future 
electrical  engineer  of  fourteen  years  poked  a  pin  through  the  cord 
of  a  drop  light,  short-circuited  the  system  and  blew  out  a  fuse. 
The  church  supper  was  in  darkness  almost  five  minutes,  until  the 
first  automobile  owner  who  could  find  a  match,  replaced  the 
fuse.  The  small  boy  was  not  hurt.  Electric  current  from  these 
small  plants  is  in  nowise  dangerous. 


HOW    A    COUNTRY    HOME    GOT    A    WATER    POWER    PLANT 


The  foregoing  incident  took  place  in  the  first  half  of  1914. 
The  war  probably  has  changed  somewhat  even  the  approximate 
figures  of  costs  given  here  from  Mr.  Rowlands's  experiences.  When 
Air.  Rowlands  first  began  work  on  his  plant  he  figured  he  needed 
about  five  horse  power  to  do  the  farm's  work  and  furnish  light  and 
also  heat  for  ironing.  He  could  easily  get  a  head  of  fifteen  feet  on 
his  brook,  "head"  meaning  the  distance  the  water  would  fall 
from  the  intake  of  the  mill  race,  pipe  or  flume  to  the  wheel  itself. 
Fifteen  feet  fall  with  a  little  turbine  wheel  only  nine  inches  in 
diameter  would  give  him  5.72  horse  power  with  one  type  of 
turbine  wheel  called  a  New  Pattern  Hunt  Francis  Cylinder 
Gate  Turbine,  while  an- 
other type,  called  Hunt 
McCormick,  would  de- 
velop eight  horse  power. 
While  the  Hunt  McCor- 
mick type  of  turbine  of 
the  same  size  as  theHunt 
Francis  type  developed 
approximately  a  third 
more  power  under  the 
same  head,  or  fall  of 
water,  the  McCormick 
wheel  required  quite  a 
bit  more  water  than  the 
Hunt  turbine.  So*  Mr. 
Rowlands,  having  but  a 
small  brook,  decided  that 
he  would  use  Hunt  type. 
By  referring  to  his  cata- 
logue he  saw  that  the 
next  size  turbine  wheel 

of  the  type  he  had  selected,  a  1 2-inch  wheel,  would  develop  8.52 
horse  power  under  a  1 5-foot  head,  while  the  next  larger  size,  a 
15-inch  wheel,  would  give  17.17  horse  power  under  that  head  and 
an  1 8-inch  wheel  would  develop  26.81  horse  power.  Turbine 
wheels  are  three  inches  larger  in  each  successive  size  up  to  sixty 
inches.  From  the  6o-inch  wheel  they  are  six  inches  larger  in 


THE  BROOK — As,  POWERFUL  AS  NIAGARA 
FOR  THE  HOME  NEEDS 


1 8  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

diameter  for  each  successive  size  wheel,  up  to  the  96-inch  turbine 
wheel,  which  Mr.  Rowlands  saw  would  develop  995  horse  power 
under  a  1 5-foot  head,  but  would  require  vastly  more  water  than 
this  brook  held  in  its  worst  flood. 

The  whole  Rowlands  family  became  interested  in  that  little 
turbine  wheel  book.  It  was  fun  speculating  on  what  they  could 
do  with  a  larger  wheel  or  by  lengthening  the  distance  the  water 
fell  to  the  wheel.  Under  a  2O-foot  head,  they  found,  the  9-inch 
turbine  wheel  would  develop  8.90  horse  power,  the  1 2-inch  wheel 
would  produce  13.24  horse  power  and  the  15-inch  wheel,  26.70 
horse  power.  The  1 8-inch  turbine  wheel  develops  41.16  horse 
power  under  a  2O-foot  head  and  the  21-inch  wheel,  57.82  horse 
power  under  the  same  head.  Mr.  Rowlands,  however,  said  he 
was  going  to  start  small  and  if  the  thing  worked  all  right  some  day 
he'd  sell  the  little  wheel  and  put  in  a  larger  one. 

The  Rowlands  place  is  a  2io-acre  farm  stretching  across  a 
small  valley  onto  low,  gently  sloping  hills  on  either  side.  The  farm 
stream  is,  in  New  England,  a  brook,  west  of  the  Alleghenys,  a 
creek.  At  its  narrow  points  a  high  school  boy  can  leap  it  in  a 
running  jump.  It  is  not  a  very  swift  stream,  just  the  ordinary, 
rapid-flowing  brook  or  creek  of  ten  thousand  farms,  with  stretches 
of  rapids  or  riffles  between  deeper,  quieter  pools  here  and  there. 
Mr.  Rowlands  built  a  dam  four  feet  high  at  the  head  of  the  riffle 
with  the  longest  fall.  The  dam  was  placed  at  a  point  where  the 
brook  changes  its  course  from  along  the  bottom  of  the  hill  and 
turns  out  into  the  valley,  only  to  turn  back  to  the  hill  a  little 
farther  down.  Mr.  Rowlands  dug  a  ditch  five  feet  wide  and  three 
feet  deep,  much  too  large,  he  now  admits,  but  you  must  remember 
that  he  was  the  pioneer  in  water  power  development  in  his  com- 
munity. He  was  banking  on  the  word  of  a  distant  turbine  wheel 
manufacturer  that  after  all  he  might  not  have  to  go  to  the  extra 
expense  of  installing  a  $300  gas  lighting  system  in  the  churchHo 
make  his  own  word  good.  Besides,  the  ditch  cost  nothing  but  the 
labor  at  a  time  when  there  wasn't  much  else  to  do  on  the  farm, 
and  a  big  part  of  the  work  was  done  by  plowing  and  "slipping" 
the  earth  and  small  stone  out  on  the  down-hill  side  with  a  hand 
scraper. 


HOW    A    COUNTRY    HOME    GOT    A    WATER    POWER    PLANT  IQ 

The  ditch  or  small  mill  race  led  straight  along  the  bottom  of 
the  hill  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  to  a  point  where  there 
was  a  steep  decline,  probably  formed  when  the  stream  bent  a  new 
course  at  that  point  years  and  years  ago.  Here  Mr.  Rowlands 
had  the  1 5-foot  fall  he  wanted.  The  bottom  of  his  little  mill 
race  sloped  very  gently  to  the  edge  of  this  decline  or  bank,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  Mr.  Rowlands  put  in  a  rough  dry  foundation  of 
stones,  open  at  one  side,  and  on  which  he  built  an  odd-looking 
structure.  It  was  much  like  a  little,  square  silo  might  be.  It 
was  5  feet  by  5  feet,  inside  dimensions,  and  was  made  of  cheap, 
rough  boards  an  inch  thick,  6  inches  wide  and  5  and  6  feet  long, 
laid  flat  on  top  of  one  another  and  spiked  tightly  together.  The 
walls  of  this  elongated  box  set  at  the  base  of  the  bank  were  thus 
solid  and  six  inches  thick.  The  box  itself  was  a  little  more  than 
fifteen  feet  tall. 

Mr.  Rowlands  connected  the  top  of  this  box  with  the  lower 
end  of  his  mill  race  by  building  a  rough  wooden  trough  or  flume 
8  feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and  3  feet  deep.  The  water  was  to  run 
down  the  mill  race,  through  the  trough  or  flume,  into  the  box.  In 
the  floor  of  the  box  Mr.  Rowlands  made  a  circular  opening  in 
which  he  set  the  little  Q-inch  turbine  wheel.  On  the  top  of  the 
box  he  built  a  shed,  a  little  larger  than  a  small  garage  and  extend- 
ing from  the  box  out  onto  the  bank.  The  power  or  driving  shaft 
of  the  turbine  wheel  ran  straight  up  from  the  wheel,  through  the 
floor  of  the  shed  and  transmitted  its  energy  through  a  crown  gear 
to  a  line  shaft,  which  in  turn  was  belted  to  an  Soo-watt,  direct 
current  electric  generator  and  to  a  feed  mill,  a  circular  saw,  an 
•emery  wheel,  a  grindstone,  and  a  pump.  A  gate  control,  for 
starting,  stopping,  and  regulating  the  speed  of  the  turbine  wheel, 
and  a  switchboard  and  storage  batteries  completed  the  equipment 
of  the  power  house. 

At  the  head  of  his  mill  race  Mr.  Rowlands  put  in  a  trash  rack 
to  keep  leaves  and  floating  debris  out  of  the  race,  and  a  wooden 
gate  to  shut  the  water  out  if  desired.  Below  the  power  house  he 
plowed  a  deep,  double  furrow  to  the  brook  farther  down,  to  give 
the  discharge  from  the  turbine  wheel  a  direct  and  easy  course  to 
the  stream.  Much  of  the  plant  was  overlarge  and  clumsy,  but 
it  has  proved  entirely  efficient  and  dependable  ever  since  the  first 


20 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 


day  it  was  put  into  use,  excepting  the  one  avoidable  incident  of 
using  the  wrong  size  wire  for  the  transmission  line  to  the  church. 
The  only  additions  that  have  been  made  to  the  plant  have  been  a 
second  trash  rack,  at  the  lower  end  of  the,  mill  race,  and  a  small 
electric  motor  at  the  house  to  operate  a  washing  machine.  The 
plant  was  constructed  and  put  into  successful  operation  entirely 


A  HOME  ELECTRIC  LIGHT  AND  POWER  PLANT 
OPERATED   BY  A    TURBINE    WATER    WHEEL 

by  men  with  no  experience  in  water  power  development.  Besides 
giving  all  the  electricity  for  light  needed  at  the  Rowlands  home, 
furnishing  power  for  pumping,  sawing  wood,  heat  for  ironing,  and 
running  practically  all  the  stationary  machinery  of  the  farm,  except 
an  ensilage  cutter,  the  Rowlands  water  power  and  electric  plant 
has  proved  a  neighborhood  benefit  in  lighting  church  and  schooj. 
Mr.  Rowlands  realizes  now  that  he  might  have  done  much  better 
by  installing  a  larger  wheel.  Or  it  could  have  been  a  much  easier 
and  neater  job  by  running  a  small  wood  pipe  from  the  dam  to  a 
horizontally-mounted  turbine  wheel  and  set  in  a  corner  of  the 
power  house.  Such  an  arrangement  would  have  eliminated  the 
big,  clumsy  wheel  pit  Mr.  Rowlands  built  and  the  slightly  less 
efficient  vertically  mounted  turbine  wheel  that  of  necessity  must 


HOW  A    COUNTRY  HOME  GOT  A  WATER  POWER  PLANT  21 

lose  a  small  fraction  of  its  power  through  the  crown  gear.  A  more 
desirable  home  power  plant  for  the  Rowlands  farm  would  have 
been  more  like  the  home  plant  pictured  above,  consisting  of  a 
somewhat  larger  wheel,  a  much  shorter  flow  of  water  and  lower 
head  or  fall  through  a  steel  plate  pipe  to  a  oo-dollar  shed  in  which 
is  placed  a  horizontally  mounted  turbine  wheel,  an  electric  genera- 
tor and  switchboard.  As  shown  in  the  picture,  the  electric  current 
generated  by  this  plant  is  carried  on  a  line  to  the  home  and  barn, 
in  the  background,  where  it  is  used  in  providing  light,  heat,  and 
power. 


22  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


CHAPTER  III 

A  WHEEL  FOR  EVERY  STREAM 

TTTATER  turbine  wheels  are  80  to  90  per  cent  efficient,  with 
*  *  some  reliable  tests  showing  even  higher  efficiency  than  90 
per  cent.  That  assertion  may  not  make  a  strong  appeal  to  the 
average  man  or  woman,  but  lay  it  alongside  the  cold,  hard  fact 
that  it  takes  the  very  highest  type  of  gasoline  or  internal  combus- 
tion engine  to  reach  as  high  as  40  per  cent  efficiency,  that  the 
average  steam  plant  operates  around  15  per  cent  efficiency,  with 
many  steam  plants  showing  only  10  per  cent  efficiency  and  with 
only  an  occasional  few  reaching  the  maximum — for  steam — of  25 
to  35  per  cent  efficiency.  Electric  generators  and  motors  run  as 
high  as  95  per  cent  efficient  in  operation,  but  since  they  must 
depend  primarily  upon  steam,  gas  or  water  for  power,  their  effi- 
ciency in  any  kind  of  plant  is  affected  by  the  kind  of  driving 
power  employed. 

This  comparison  of  power-developing  machinery  indicates 
sharply  the  opportunities  to  profit  by  harnessing  the  country 
home's  brook  for  light,  power,  heat,  and  water  works,  or,  by  in- 
stalling a  turbine  water  wheel  at  the  end  of  the  long  riffle  where 
the  town  boys  go  swimming  in  summer,  to  give  electricity  and  fire 
protection  to  the  town. 

It  will  cost  about  $160  and  up  for  each  horse  power  harnessed 
by  a  water  power  plant.  That  is  a  minimum  figure,  not  the 
average.  Quite  possibly  the  average  on  many  farms  would  be 
about  $320,  possibly  more,  possibly  less.  No  two  plants  cost  the 
same.  But  whatever  the  figure,  it  will  not  cost  as  much  to  harness 
water  horse  power  as  to  put  and  keep  leather  harness  on  each 
horse  power  in  actual  horse  flesh  on  the  farm.  For  this  water 
power  harness  does  its  work  tirelessly  and  continuously  on  horse 
power  that  never  tires,  never  gets  sick  and  requires  neither  oats, 
hay,  bedding  nor  curry  comb.  Its  repairs  are  less  than  horseshoe- 
ing bills.  Its  "feed,"  or  "fuel,"  costs  nothing,  since  the  brook  or 


A    WHEEL    FOR    EVERY    STREAM  23 

creek  furnishes  a  steady,  unending  supply  of  "white  coal,"  as  the 
thrifty  Swiss  with  their  extensively  developed  hydro-electric 
plants  call  water  power.  Even  the  somewhat  primitive  water 
power  plant  on  the  Rowlands  Farm,  described  in  the  previous 
chapter,  the  little  water  wheel,  buried  in  water,  never  freezes, 
never  heats  up.  It  doesn't  even  need  oiling  and  it  costs  nothing 
to  run  it. 

Harnessing  a  brook  not  only  is  much  cheaper  than  harnessing 
steam,  gasoline,  kerosene  or  living  horses,  it  is  cheaper  than  buying 
electricity  from  transmission  lines  that  pass  farms  here  and  there, 
carrying  electric  current  from  town  to  town  or  from  a  large  power 
plant  to  the  city.  The  minute  a  country  dweller  taps  such  a 
transmission  line  his  monthly  bills  for  current  begin.  They  never 
cease  so  long  as  he  uses  current.  In  addition  he  pays  the  cost  of 
installing  a  transformer,  a  meter,  and  a  private  line,  which  will 
amount  to  $200  or  more.  It  is  infinitely  cheaper  for  the  dweller 
near  a  small  stream  to  put  in  his  own  plant.  That  fact  is  so  ap- 
parent with  a  little  looking  into  this  subject  of  water  power,  that 
big,  successful  business  men  with  the  best  engineering  advice 
money  can  buy,  have  spent  the  huge  sums  of  $300  and  $400  a 
horse  power  and  more  in  developing  great  industrial  and  commer- 
cial water  power  plants.  The  first  cost  is  practically  the  whole 
cost  and  after  that  the  plant  operates  for  years  for  almost  nothing. 
The  power  that  runs  it  is  free.  Only  the  harness  costs. 

In  estimating  the  cost  of  electrical  generators,  switchboards, 
storage  batteries  and  wiring  for  a  home  power  plant,  about  $225 
a  horse  power,  or  746  watts,  is  a  fair  figure.  For  a  village  or  small 
town  plant  #160  a  kilowatt  is  a  generous  figure  for  the  plant's 
electrical  equipment  alone.  A  kilowatt  is  a  unit  of  electrical 
power  that  is  equivalent  to  1.34  horse  power.  It  is  sufficient  to 
furnish  current  for  twenty-five  4<>watt  lights  or  for  fifty  2O-watt 
lights  or  to  do  the  work  that  1.34  horse  power  would  do  in  a  water 
wheel,  steam  or  gas  engine. 

But  some  man  or  woman  with  an  investigating  mind,  like 
Mr.  Rowlands,  may  say  that  turbine  water  wheels  are  all  very 
well  for  country  homes  with  brooks  or  creeks,  but  where  only  a 
tiny  spring  branch,  a  mere  rivulet,  is  available,  water  power  is  out 
of  the  question.  That  is  a  mistaken  notion.  There  is  a  practical 


24 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


water  wheel  for  every  stream.  If  the  rivulet  flows  as  much  as  six 
gallons  of  water  a  minute,  in  the  dry  period  of  the  year  for  that 
locality  and  a  stream  less  than  a  foot  wide  and  only  an  inch  or 
two  deep  will  do  that,  it  will  operate  a  water  wheel  pumping  plant 
and  pump  360  gallons  of  water  a  day  practically  any  distance 
and  to  a  height  of  100  feet.  If  the  rivulet  flows  50  gallons  a 
minute,  the  home  water  wheel  pumping  plant  will  pump  2,500 
gallons  of  water  a  day,  practically  any  distance  and  to  a  height 
of  100  feet,  pumping  not  the  perhaps  impure  water  that  operates 
the  wheel,  but  pure  water  from  another  stream,  spring  or  pond. 

The  great  beauty  of  water  power  development  is  that  there  is 
a  wheel  for  every  stream.  These 
wheels  are  divided  roughly  into  two 
classes,  impulse  and  reaction  wheels. 
The  reaction  wheel  is  the  turbine, 
the  water  motor  to  be  used,  as  in 
Mr.  Rowlands's  case,  where  five 
horse  power  and  up  are  to  be  devel- 
oped. The  impulse  wheel,  a  draw- 
ing of  which  is  shown  on  this  page, 
is  a  highly  modern  descendant  of 
the  old  overshot  water  wheels  that 
have  been  used  for  hundreds  of 
years.  Today  they  are  called  rim- 
leverage  wheels,  not  overshot  wheels 
and  with  the  losing  of  the  old  name 
they  have  lost,  too,  the  clumsiness 
and  wasteful  inefficiency  that  char- 
acterized the  old  overshot  mill 
wheels.  They  are  intensely  effi- 
cient machines,  compact,  durable 


A  RIM-LEVERAGE  WATER  WHEEL, 

THE  CHEAPEST  PRACTICAL  POWER 

DEVELOPING  MACHINE  YET 

DEVISED 


and  beyond  doubt  the  cheapest  power-developing  machine  in  the 
world  today.  The  paddles,  or  buckets,  are  shaped  and- set  with 
mathematical  accuracy  so  that  the  wheel  absorbs  almost  the 
entire  energy  of  the  falling  water  and  each  drop  of  water  is  caught 
and  held  by  the  wheel  just  so  long  as  it  has  power  to  impart  and 
then  is  dropped  into  the  tail  race  without  having  had  a  fraction  of 
a  second's  free  ride  on  the  wheel. 


A    WHEEL    FOR    EVERY    STREAM  25 

Rim-leverage  wheels  are  made  of  wood  or  of  steel,  to  suit 
different  pocketbooks.  They  may  be  mounted  on  the  side  of  a 
stream  without  being  sheltered.  The  water  is  conveyed  to  them 
by  a  trough  or  pipe  and  imparts  its  force  by  falling  directly  onto 
the  wheel.  In  smaller  sizes  rim-leverage  wheels  are  used  with 
pump  combination  only,  to  supply  the  home  water  works  system. 
In  the  larger  sizes,  developing  several  horse  power,  rim-leverage 
wheels  are  used  to  drive  electric  generators  and  to  do  other  small 
work  besides  pumping  water  and  furnishing  electric  current  for 
light,  heat,  and  small  power  work.  Chapter  VII,  page  49,  takes 
up  in  further  detail  the  rim-leverage  wheel. 

For  each  possible  power  site  on  a  spring  branch,  brook,  creek 
or  river  there  is  a  rim-leverage  wheel  or  a  turbine  wheel  that  is 
cheapest  and  best  for  the  fullest  economic  development  of  that 
plant,  whether  it  is  only  a  little  home  pumping  plant,  a  home 
power  and  electric  plant,  or  a  larger  installation  to  supply  village, 
town,  city  or  factory.  But  before  we  follow  that  interesting  path 
explored  by  Mr.  Rowlands,  the  chances  for  using  water  wheels 
in  the  home  stream,  before  we  look  further  into  the  nature  of  that 
very  simple  mechanism,  the  turbine  water  wheel,  let  us  take  a 
look  at  any  small  stream  anywhere  to  see  if  we  cannot  determine 
accurately  what  practical  usefulness  may  be  got  out  of  it.  Tur- 
bine wheels  are  described  in  full  and  illustrated  in  Chapter  VI, 
page  41. 


26 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


CHAPTER  IV 


INVOICING  A  SMALL  STREAM 

/TpHE  strangeness  of  the  problem  doubtless  is  the  one  thing  that 
-*•  has  caused  practically  every  man  and  woman  owning  a  small 
stream  power  site  to  neglect  investigating  the  practicability  of 
using  the  stream  for  power,  light,  heat,  and  pumping  water. 
Where  can  one  begin  to  solve  such  a  problem?  It  seems  formid- 
able because  it  is  strange.  But  let  us  walk  down  to  any  small 
stream  on  any  farm  or  near  any  town,  anywhere,  and  find  out 


SHOWING  A  BROOK  READY  TO  BE  INVOICED  BY  USING  A  PLANK, 
SEVEN  STAKES,  FIVE  CHIPS,  AND  THE  MULTIPLICATION  TABLE 

quickly  and  accurately  just  what  that  stream  is  worth.  What 
unused  good  has  that  brook  or  river  in  it  for  me,  my  home  or  my 
town  ? 

Here  is  a  fairly  even  stretch  of  theL  stream,  as  is  pictured  in 
the  drawing  on  this  page.  Just  above  a  little  riffle,  shown  at  the 
left  of  the  picture,  we  drive  a  stake,  H,  and  measure  fifty  feet 
directly  upstream  where  we  drive  a  stake,  G.  Now  we  drop  a 
wo"bden  block  or  chip  about  two  inches  square  in  the  stream  at  G 
and  time  it  as  it  floats  that  measured  fifty  feet  to  H.  We  drop  a 
second  block  or  chip  and  time  it  as  it  floats  from  G  to  H.  One 


INVOICING    A    SMALL    STREAM  2J 

after  the  other  we  drop  three  more  chips  and  time  them  as  they 
float  the  measured  fifty  feet  from  G  to  H.  The  first  chip  floats 
fifty  feet  from  G  to  H  in  10  seconds.  The  second  chip  floats  the 
same  distance  in  8  seconds.  The  third  chip  requires  II  seconds 
to  make  the  distance;  the  fourth  chip,  9  seconds,  and  the  fifth 
chip,  12  seconds.  We  are  trying  to  learn  how  fast  the  brook 
flows  in  this  5<>foot  stretch  we  have  measured  oflF.  So  to  get  the 
average  time  of  the  five  chips  we  add  together  the  time  made  by 
each  of  them  which  equals  50.  We  divide  50  by  5,  the  number  of 
chips,  which  gives  us  10,  therefore  10  seconds  is  the  average  time 
of  the  chips  in  floating  that  fifty  feet,  or  5  feet  a  second,  10  into 
50  is  5. 

But  no  stream  flows  evenly  throughout  its  width.  It  is 
slower  near  the  banks  and  bottom  because  there  is  friction  between 
the  water  and  the  bottom  and  banks.  The  flow  is  swifter  in  the 
center  just  below  the  surface,  where  there  is  least  friction.  Con- 
sequently five  feet  a  second,  the  average  time  of  the  five  chips  is 
too  fast,  so  we  deduct  20  per  cent  from  this  average  speed  or 
velocity  by  multiplying  5  by  .80,  which  gives  us  4  feet  a  second  as 
the  mean -velocity  of  the  stream  in  this  5<>foot  stretch.  There  we 
have  the  answer  to  one  of  the  three  simple  questions  we  must 
answer  to  learn  how  much  power  is  running  to  waste  in  the  stream. 
We  have  found  how  fast  the  stream  flows  in  a  certain  length  or 
stretch  and  it  does  not  make  any  difference  where  we  measure  off 
that  stretch  of  the  stream,  the  ultimate  results  will  be  the  same. 

Next  we  want  to  learn  how  much  water  is  flowing  down  that 
5<>foot  stretch,  or  in  any  other  sector  of  the  stream  we  have 
decided  to  use  in  invoicing  the  stream's  possibilities.  After  that 
we  will  have  to  determine  how  much  drop  or  fall  we  can  get,  since 
the  farther  the  water  falls  from  the  dam  to  the  wheel  the  greater 
the  power  developed.  When  we  have  answered  these  remaining 
two  questions  we  will  know  all  that  is  necessary  to  know  about 
this  stream  in  deciding  how  it  can  best  be  put  to  use. 

To  find  out  how  much  water  is  flowing  in  the  stream,  we  lay  a 
plank  across  the  stream  midway  between  stakes  G  and  H,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing  on  page  26.  Standing  on  this  plank  we 
drive  the  stake  A,  which  is  just  a  foot  from  the  bank  on  the  left- 
hand  side  of  the  brook,  as  shown  in  the  drawing  on  page  26,  but 


28  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

given  in  a  larger  cross-section  view  lower  down  on  this  page.  A 
foot  farther  out  from  stake  A  we  drive  stake  B,  and  a  foot  farther 
still  we  drive  stake  C,  then  stakes  D  and  E,  at  i-foot  intervals, 
indicated  in  the  drawing  on  this  page.  The  brook  is  only  six  feet 
wide.  If  it  were  wider,  we  would  drive  more  stakes  at  l-foot 
intervals.  The  plank  is  included  merely  as  a  convenience  and  may 
be  omitted.  Now  we  measure  the  depth  of  water  at  each  stake. 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  STREAM 


We  find  that  it  is  9  inches  deep  at  stake  A;  II  inches  deep  at 
stake  B;  13  inches  deep  at  stake  C;  15  inches  deep  at  stake  D 
and  12  inches  deep  at  stake  E.  To  get  the  average  depth  we 
add  together  the  depth  of  all  five  stakes,  which  gives  us  60  inches, 
and  divide  by  5,  which  gives  12  inches  as  the  average  depth  of  that 
particular  width  of  stream.  This  may  seem  rather  simple  arith- 
metic, but  its  purpose  will  all  be  clear  in  the  next  few  lines. 

Suppose  the  plank  laid  across  the  stream  is  a  foot  wide,  then 
that  part  of  the  brook  immediately  beneath  the  plank  would  be 
a  section  of  the  stream  the  width?  of  the  plank,  I  foot,  the  length 
of  the  plank,  6  feet,  and  with  an  average  dep.n  of  I  foot.  In 
other  words,  the  part  of  the  stream  immediately  beneath  the 
plank  would  be  a  slice  of  the  brook,  I  foot  wide  from  the  upstream 
edge  of  the  plank  to  the  downstream  edge  of  the  plank,  6  feet 
from  bank  to  bank,  and  with  an  average  depth  of  I  foot.  Well, 
how  much  water,  what  quantity  of  water,  is  in  such  a  slice  of  the 
stream?  We  want  the  answer  in  cubic  feet,  so  we  multiply  to- 
gether those  three  dimensions  of  the  slice  of  brook,  I  x  6  x  I  equals 
6,  or  6  cubic  feet,  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  slice  of  brook  we  so 


carefully  measured.  A  cubic  foot  of  water  is  yj/^  gallons,  so  we 
have  45  gallons  of  water  in  that  slice  of  brook,  to  express  it  in  the 
more  usual  unit  of  'measure.  We  have  already  determined  that 
the  brook  flows  4  feet  a  second.  That  slice  of  brook  we  have 
measured  flows  just  as  fast  as  any  of  the  rest  of  the  water  passing 
that  point,  so  to  get  the  rate  of.  flow  we  multiply  the  speed,  4  feet 


INVOICING    A    SMALL    STREAM  29 

a  second,  by  the  quantity  of  water,  6  cubic  feet,  and  find  that  the 
stream  flows  24  cubic  feet  of  water  a  second.  At  that  rate  it 
flows  1,440  cubic  feet  of  water  a  minute,  since  there  are  60  seconds 
in  a  minute  and  60  multiplied  by  24  equals  1,440.  There  we  have 
the  answer  to  the  second  question,  how  much  water  does  the 
stream  flow? 

A  horse  power  is  33,000  pounds  dropping  one  foot  in  one 
minute.  Thus,  33,000  pounds  of  water  falling  one  foot  in  one 
minute  will  develop  one  horse  power.  Now  we  have  1,440  cubic 
feet  of  water  a  minute  in  the  stream  we  are  invoicing.  Each  cubic 
foot  of  water  weighs  62^/2  pounds,  so  the  total  weight  of  the  water 
flowing  down  this  stream  each  minute  is  equal  to  1,440  cubic  feet 
multiplied  by  623/2,  which  is  90,000  pounds.  If  we  drop  90,000 
pounds  of  water  one  foot  in  one  minute,  how  much  horse  power 
would  the  stream  develop?  Dividing  90,000  by  33,000,  the  result 
is  2.72  horse  power. 

However,  we  must  remember  that  developing  power  under 
such  low  heads  as  one  foot,  or  even  two  or  three  feet,  is  not  the 
cheapest  or  the  most  practical  method  in  small  streams.  It  is 
better  for  us  to  have  a  1 5-foot  head,  or  fall,  as  Mr.  Rowlands  did. 
With  a  15-foot  head  we  saw  that  Mr.  Rowlands's  little  9-inch 
turbine  wheel  developed  5.72  horse  power,  and  required  only  246 
cubic  feet  or  17,365  pounds  of  water  a  minute  to  do  it.  In  fact, 
246  cubic  fee^  of  water  was  all  the  water  that  particular  type  and 
size  of  wheel  could  use  under  a  1 5-foot  head.  No  matter  if  the 
whole  Mississippi  River  were  surging  about  it,  only  246  cubic 
feet  of  water  would  go  through  that  wheel  under  a  1 5-foot  fall. 
To  get  more  power  out  of  that  size  and  type  wheel  the  head  or  fall 
of  the  water  must  be  increased,  thus  increasing  the  quantity  of 
water  the  wheel  could  use.  It  is  impossible  to  strain  or  to  damage 
a  water  wheel  by  overloading.  It  can  and  will  do  just  so  much 
work,  right  up  to  its  big  80  to  90  per  cent  efficiency,  and  there  it 
stops.  It  is  the  mule  of  the  entire  world  of  machinery.  If  we 
propose  to  use  all  the  1,440  cubic  feet  of  water  a  minute  that  flows 
in  the  stream  we  are  invoicing  we  will  have  to  employ  a  larger 
type  of  wheel  than  the  one  Mr.  Rowlands  uses.  Even  under 
loo-foot  head  his  turbine  wheel  would  use  only  634  cubic  feet  of 
water  a  minute,  but  it  would  develop  99.60  horse  power.  We 


30  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

would  still  have  half  of  the  water  going  to  waste  in  using  that 
type  of  9-inch  wheel,  even  if  we  cared  to  or  were  situated  to  install 
the  heavier  pipe  or  penstock  construction  to  handle  a  fall  or  head 
of  water  of  100  feet. 

Obviously  if  we  want  to  use  all  the  1,440  cubic  feet  of  water 
a  minute  in  the  brook,  we  must  get  a  larger  wheel.  A  21-inch 
turbine  wheel  would  use  1,435  cubic  feet  of  water  a  minute  under 
only  a  1 2-foot  head  and  would  develop  26.74  horse  power.  That 
figure  applies  only  to  the  New  Pattern  Hunt  Francis  Cylinder 
Gate  Turbine  Wheels.  The  same  size  Cylinder  Gate  Hunt 
McCormick  Turbine  Wheel  would  develop  32.9  horse  power  under 
a  12-foot  head,  but  it  would  require  1,815  cubic  feet  of  water  a 
minute,  which  is  more  water  than  our  "sample"  stream  averages. 
Or,  a  24-inch  Hunt  Francis  cylinder  gate  type  would  use  1,406 
cubic  feet  of  water  a  minute  under  only  a  7-foot  fall  and  would 
give  15-28  horse  power  in  return,  while  the  24-inch  Hunt 
McCormick  cylinder  gate  type  would  use  1,831  cubic  feet  of 
water  a  minute  under  a  7-foot  head  and  develop  19.4  horse  power. 
The  situation  then,  is  that  where  there  is  a  large  quantity  of 
water  and  a  low  fall  available,  there  must  be  a  larger  wheel,  or 
better,  a  pair  or  series  of  turbine  wheels,  to  develop  the  water 
power  plant  fully.  The  stream  to  be  utilized  may  be  deep,  or 
wide  and  flow  slowly,  through  a  flat  country  and  it  might  be  utterly 
impracticable  to  obtain  even  a  1 5-foot  head  of  water  within  a 
reasonable  distance.  In  such  case  a  low  head  of  water  must  be 
used  and  the  t'ype  and  size  of  turbine  wheel  that  fits  best  in  that 
particular  development.  There  is  a  size  and  type  of  turbine  wheel 
to  fit  any  combination  of  quantity  of  water  and  fall  of  water  to 
the  very  best  advantage  and  fullest  development  of  the  plant 
under  those  specific  conditions. 

When  a  stream  is  very  rapid  or  it  is  feasible  to  get  a  consider- 
able drop  or  fall  of  water  in  a  short  distance,  the  development 
points  to  the  use  of  a  smaller  size  wheel.  Perhaps  the  stream  is 
only  a  tiny  brook  and  hasn't  enough  water  to  run  a  large  turbine 
wheel.  Then,  the  thing  to  do  is  to  let  the  small  volume  of  water 
fall  a  greater  distance  to  a  small  turbine  water  wheel  and  in  that 
way  develop  as  much  power  as  the  larger  wheel  that  operates 
under  a  lower  head,  but  with  a  greater  volume  of  water.  It  seems 
that  Nature  has  provided  every  aid  for  harnessing  water  power. 


INVOICING    A    SMALL    STREAM  3! 

In  the  mountains  and  hills  the  streams  may  be  small  and  rapid, 
affording  only  small  volumes  of  water,  but  high  heads  are  easily 
available  and  thereby  the  little  streams  are  capable  of  developing 
much  power.  Out  on  the  plains  and  in  the  broader  valleys  the 
larger  streams  flow  slowly  but  they  afford  a  large  volume  of  water 
to  make  up  for  the  lack  of  head.  On  pages  140  to  152  of  this  book 


THE  DOTTED  LINE,    C  TO  A,  ILLUSTRATES  THE  COMMON  TERM, 
"HEAD  OF  WATER,"  AVAILABLE  TO  OPERATE  THE  WATER  WHEEL 

you  will  find  different  types  and  sizes  of  turbine  water  wheels 
rated,  showing  the  power  development  of  each  type  and  size  under 
different  heads  of  water,  the  quantity  of  water  required  and  the 
number  of  revolutions  a  minute  of  the  wheel. 

We  have  now  come  to  the  last  of  the  three  questions  we  had  to 
answer  in  taking  stock  of  our  sample  stream:  What  head  or  fall 
can  we  have?  The  picture  on  this  page  indicates  what  is  meant 
by  head,  fall,  or  drop.  It  is  the  distance  on  the  dotted  line  from 
C  to  A.  It  does  not  matter  much  what  the  distance  is  that  the 
water  flows  through  the  pipe  from  an  inlet  B  near  the  dam  to  A, 
where  the  turbine  wheel  would  be  placed,  so  long  as  that  distance 
is  not  so  great  as  to  make  cost  of  laying  pipe,  building  flume  or 
mill  race  prohibitive.  We  are  concerned  chiefly  with  how  much 
vertical  drop  we  can  get,  as  indicated  by  the  line  C  to  A. 


32  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

Well,  I  can  guess  a  grade  or  drop  of  a  stream  pretty  well,  one 
man  boasts. 

Possibly  he  can,  but  the  chances  are  500  to  I  that  he  cannot. 
If  ever  you  have  seen  young  engineering  students  guessing  at 
grades  you  will  appreciate  the  truth  of  that.  Let's  not  guess. 
We  want  everything  in  this  procedure  to  be  absolutely  dependable. 
Nor  need  we  call  a  surveyor  out  from  town.  That  would  cost 
money.  Let  us  employ  the  simple  tools  and  methods  that  Mr. 
Rowlands  used,  a  lo-foot  straight-edge,  such  as  stone  masons 
use,  a  carpenter's  spirit  level  and  a  yard  stick. 

We  want  to  get  the  greatest  fall  in  the  shortest  distance  along 
the  stream  that  is  possible.  Let  us  pick  out  a  stretch  of  the  brook 
that  seems  to  have  the  greatest  fall  in  the  shortest  distance. 
Near  the  lower  end  of  the  riffle,  where  we  think  we  may  locate  the 
turbine  wheel,  we  place  the  straight-edge  at  the  water's  edge  and 
parallel  with  the  bank.  The  upstream  end  of  the  straight-edge 
rests  on  a  pebble  whose  top  is  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  water. 
We  place  the  spirit  level  on  the  center  of  the  straight-edge  and 
then  with  stones  or  a  stake  level  up  the  lower  end  of  the  straight- 
edge until  the  spirit  level  shows  that  the  straight-edge  is  exactly 
level.  \Ve  then  measure  the  distance  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
straight  edge  above  the  surface  of  the  water  and  we  find  how  far 
the  water  falls  in  this  ten  feet.  If  the  downstream  end  of  the 
straight-edge  is  one  foot  above  the  water,  the  fall  in  that  lo-foot 
section  of  the  stream  is  one  foot.  We  move  the  straight-edge  up- 
stream exactly  ten  feet  and  repeat  the  measuring  process,  and 
continue  to  repeat  the  process  through  any  length  of  the  stream 
desired.  If  the  fall  in  100  feet  is  to  be  determined  the  lo-foot 
straight-edge  will  have  to  be  moved  and  leveled  up  ten  times. 
Any  length  of  straight-edge  may  be  used,  just  so  the  board  is 
straight  and  true.  Some  streams  with  abrupt  banks  may  make 
the  application  of  this  simple  method  a  bit  difficult,  but  it  can  fre 
used  in  all  cases  by  exercising  a  little  common  sense  ingenuity. 

There  are  all  three  of  the  water  questions  answered  accurately 
We  have  learned  how  fast  the  stream  flows,  how  much  water  it 
delivers  a  minute  and  the  head  of  water  available.  This  method 
may  be  termed  the  "dry-foot"  method,  and  it  may  be  used  in 
measuring  either  small  or  large  streams. 


THE  WEIR  METHOD  OF  MEASURING  WATER 


33 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  WEIR  METHOD  OF  MEASURING  WATER 

THE  "dry  foot"  method  of  measuring  a  stream,  as  described 
in  the  previous  chapter,  is  a  quick  and  dependable  way  of 
measuring  a  large  or  small  stream.     For  a  brook  or  creek,  there  is 
another  way  that  perhaps  is  easier,  the  weir  method.     Weir  is 
only  another  name  for  dam.     The  weir  method  consists  of  putting 


A  WEIR  FOR  MEASURING  THE  FLOW  OF  A  SMALL  STREAM 

a  small  board  weir  or  dam  across  the  stream,  after  having  sawed  a 
section  out  of  the  top  and  middle  part  of  the  weir  so  that  all  the 
water  of  the  brook  must  flow  through  this  sawed  section.  The 
depth  of  the  water  flowing  through  this  sawed  out  section  in  the 
weir  is  measured  and  then  by  simply  referring  to  the  table  of  weirs 
on  page  35  the  capacity  of  the  stream  is  shown  instantly.  The 
picture  on  this  page  shows  such  a  weir  for  measuring  a  small  stream. 
Should  you  employ  an  expert  to  measure  your  brook  or  creek,  he 
probably  would  bring  a  current  meter  and  a  surveyor's  transit  or 
level  and  then  would  put  in  a  weir,  if  the  stream  were  not  too 


34  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

large.  He  would  use  up  a  lot  of  expensive  time  at  your  expense 
and  the  results  he  would  obtain  would  be  exactly  the  results  you 
can  obtain  without  cost. 

Let  us  glance  at  the  picture  of  a  weir  and  then  go  down 
to  the  brook,  put  in  a  similar  weir  and  determine  immediately 
how  much  horse  power  is  running  to  waste  in  that  stream.  The 
weir  may  be  made  of  one  large  plank  or  of  several  pieces  of  old 
scrap  lumber  cleated  together.  An  opening  is  sawed  in  the  middle 
of  the  weir,  as  shown  in  the  picture,  and  the  weir  is  set  across  the 
stream  and  is  carefully  "plugged"  with  clay  or  sods  to  prevent 
water  leaking  underneath  or  at  the  sides  of  the  weir.  The  opening 
is  sawed  on  a  slant,  beveled,  with  the  sharp  edge  of  the  bevel  up- 
stream. Say  the  opening  is  30  inches  wide  and  10  inches  deep,  or 
any  other  width  and  depth,  so  long  as  all  the  water  in  the  brook 
flows  through  the  opening,  there  is  no  leakage  at  the  bottom  of 
sides,  and  at  the  same  time  the  weir  dams  the  brook  sufficiently  to 
form  a  little  mill  pond  three  or  four  feet  above  the  weir.  But  to 
be  definite,  let's  have  the  opening  in  our  weir  30  inches  wide  and 
10  inches  deep.  Now,  two  or  three  feet  above  the  weir  we  drive 
a  stake  in  the  stream.  The  stake  is  marked  I  in  the  picture  on  the 
opposite  page.  We  want  the  top  of  that  stake  just  level  with  the 
surface  of  the  water.  Next  we  extend  a  yard  stick,  or  a  lath,  from 
the  top  of  the  stake  to  the  nearest  edge  of  the  opening  in  the  weir. 
We  get  that  yard  stick  or  lath  exactly  level  by  using  a  spirit  level 
and  then  we  mark  on  the  edge  of  the  weir  opening  so  that  that 
mark  is  exactly  level  with  the  top  of  the  stake.  From  that  mark 
we  measure  straight  down  to  the  bottom  edge  of  the  opening  in 
the  weir  and  our  work  is  done,  except  for  the  simple  action  of 
glancing  across  to  the  page  opposite  to  the  Table  of  Weirs  printed 
there. 

Let  us  say,  to  be  specific,  that  the  distance  from  the  mark  we 
made  on  the  edge  of  the  opening  in  the  weir,  to  the  bottom  edge 
of  the  opening  is  7%  inches.  On  the  Table  of  Weirs  on  the  oppo- 
site page  we  notice  five  columns  of  figures.  At  the  top  of  the  first 
column  is  the  word  "inches;"  at  the  top  of  the  second  column,  the 
cipher,  "O";  at  the  top  of  the  third  column,  the  fraction,  "}4"; 
at  the  top  of  the  fourth  column,  the  fraction"  1/2",  and  at  the  top 
of  the  fifth  column,  the  fraction  "%".  We  look  down  that  first 


THE    WEIR    METHOD    OF    MEASURING    WATER  35 

column,  under  the  word  "inches,"  until  we  come  to  the  figure  7, 
remembering  that  the  distance  we  measured  was  7%.  We  run 
a  finger  across  the  table  to  the  column  that  is  headed  "%"and 
there  we  find  the  number  8.697,  which  is  the  key  to  determine  the 
rate  of  flow  in  this  stream.  We  recall  now  that  the  opening  in  the 
weir  was  30  inches  wide,  so  we  multiply  the  key  number,  8.697,  by 
30,  which  gives  260.91  and  means  that  the  stream  flows  at  the  rate 
of  260.91  cubic  feet  of  water  a  minute.  That  is  more  than  enough 
water  under  a  1 5-foot  head  to  run  Mr.  Rowlands's  little  9-inch 
turbine  wheel  and  generate  5.72  horse  power,  since  Mr.  Rowlands's 
wheel  requires  only  246  cubic  feet  of  water  a  minute.  And  yet 
this  little  stream  flowing  through  an  opening  less  than  a  yard  wide; 
30  inches  wide,  in  fact;  and  less  than  a  foot  deep,  only  7%  inches 
deep,  develops  5.72  horse  power  in  the  smallest  turbine  wheel. 

TABLE  OF  WEIRS 


Inches 

o 

X 

Y<i 

X 

! 

0.403 

0.563 

0.740 

0.966 

2 

1.141 

1  .  360 

1-593 

1.838 

3 

2.094 

2.361 

2.639 

2.927 

4 

3-225 

3.531 

3.848 

4-173 

5 

4.506 

4.849 

5-200 

5.558 

6 

S-925 

6.298 

6.681 

7.071 

7 

7.465 

7.869 

8.280 

8.697 

8 

9.  121 

9.552 

9.990 

10.427 

9 

10.884 

11.340 

1  1  .  804 

12.272 

10 

12.747 

13.228 

13.716 

14.208 

1  1 

14.707 

15.211 

15.721 

16.236 

12 

16.757 

17.283 

17.816 

18.352 

13 
H 

18.895 
21.  Il6 

19  445 

21.684 

19.996 

22.258 

20.558 
22.835 

15 

23.418 

24.007 

24  .  600 

25.195 

16 

25  .  800 

26  .  406 

27.019 

27.634 

17 

28.256 

28.881 

29.512 

30.145 

18 

30.785 

31-429 

32.075 

32.733 

This  table  is  taken  from  "Electricity  for  the  Farm,"  by  Frederick  Irving 
Anderson,  The  Macmillan  Company.  It  is  adapted  from  the  co-efficients 
worked  out  in  1852  by  Mr.  James  B.  Francis  of  Lowell,  Mass.  This  little 
table  is  as  much  a  water  classic  in  its  way  as  is  Tennyson's  "Brook,"  and 
although  studying  a  table  of  figures  is  not  usually  attractive,  the  understand- 
ing of  the  weir  method  of  measuring  stream  flow  is  dollars  and  cents  in  the 
pocket  of  any  man  who  dwells  on  a  small  stream.  On  page  161  we  have  placed 
a  similar  table  of  weirs  from  one  of  our  catalogues,  because  it  is  graded  down  to 
eighths  instead  of  fourths,  as  used  in  Mr.  Anderson's  table  herewith. 


36  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

An  adjustment  whereby  water  power  may  be  properly  developed 
for  the  public  good  and  without  working  toward  monopolies  is  a 
vital  legislative  necessity  for  the  Nation.  However,  there  is  no 
legislative  restriction  on  the  small  stream  power  site  owner  who 
may  put  in  a  home,  village  or  town  plant.  The  conservation  acts 
do  not  apply  to  him  or  his  stream  and  in  putting  in  a  home  or 
town  plant  he  has  the  glad  assurance  that  he  is  following  the  most 
beneficial  conservation  policy  possible. 

In  this  example  of  enough  water  flowing  through  an  opening 
30  inches  wide  and  7^4  inches  deep  to  develop  5.72  horse  power,  we 
see  now  why  Mr.  Rowlands  made  a  mistake  in  digging  a  mill  race 
five  feet  wide  and  three  feet  deep.  All  he  needed  was  a  little  wood 
pipe  about  a  foot  in  diameter  and  placed  below  frost  line  where  he 
could  plow  right  over  it  without  damaging  it,  or  a  small  wooden 
or  concrete  flume.  But  like  most  of  us  he  could  not  realize  there 
is  so  much  work  or  power  in  so  little  water.  We  base  our  vague 
notions  of  water  power  on  the  vague  memories  of  old  mills  a  genera- 
tion ago  that  were  run  by  water  power.  The  railroads  with  cheap 
coal  made  possible  the  larger  development  of  steam  power  plants 
and  for  awhile  displaced  to  some  extent  the  extensive  develop- 
ment of  water  power.  Then  came  a  bigger  realization  of  water 
power's  real  worth  and  with  it  a  rapid  growth  and  perfecting  of 
giant  plants  for  producing  cheaper  electricity  and  power.  So 
successful  was  this  period  of  development  that  a  national  conser- 
vation movement  was  born  of  a  recognition  of  the  colossal  value  of 
water  power  and  of  a  fear  that  the  country's  water  power  resources 
might  be  monopolized  by  a  few  long-headed  business  men.  Con- 
gress enacted  laws  to  prevent  monopoly,  thereby  doing  some  good, 
no  doubt,  in  conserving  this  greatest  national  resource  for  the 
greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number,  but  utterly  failing  to  provide 
adequate  ways  of  utilizing  for  the  public's  good  this  great  resource 
that  is  running  to  waste  while  it  is  being  so  religiously  conserved. 


THE    TURBINE    WHEEL  37 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  TURBINE  WHEEL 

THE  most  familiar  type  of  turbine  wheel  is  the  air  turbine, 
the  windmill.  An  electric  fan  and  the  screw  propellers  of  a 
boat  are  in  effect  turbines  reversed.  Steam  turbines  iu  the 
modern  dreadnaughts,  torpedo  boats,  and  Atlantic  liners  and  in 
the  highest  types  of  steam  plants  ashore  are  exactly  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  turbine  water  wheel.  The  only  difference  is  that 
one  of  them  uses  steam  and  the  other  uses  water.  However,  the 
most  efficient  type  of  steam  engine,  which  is  the  steam  turbine, 
is  not  half  so  efficient  as  the  best  turbine  water  wheels,  because 
steam  plants  require  boilers  and  pipes  to  carry  steam  from  boiler  to 
engine  and  in  these  there  is  heavy  loss  in  efficiency. 

A  turbine  water  wheel  is  nothing  more  than  a  metal  whirligig 
in  a  box.  It  has  only  one  working  part,  the  "whirligig"  itself, 
with  no  array  of  valves,  pistons,  piston  rings,  gears,  cams,  differ- 
entials, timers,  cogs,  and  bea-rings  to  get  out  of  order.  It  is  a 
matter  of  fine  speculation  which  is  the  simpler  form  of  power 
device  or  machine  in  the  world,  the  turbine  water  wheel  or  the 
rim-leverage  water  wheel.  Certainly  the  turbine  water  wheel  is 
the  most  durable  and  efficient  power  producing  machine  man  has 
yet  invented  and  developed.  We  have  referred  to  the  turbine 
wheel  itself  as  a  "whirligig,"  but  the  correct  name  for  the  turbine 
wheel  is  "runner."  The  name  describes  it,  for  it  most  surely  does 
run.  The  runner  has  a  hole  in  its  center  and  in  this  hole  a  shaft 
or  axle  is  fitted.  The  shaft  turns  as  the  runner  turns.  The  shaft 
projects  up  through  the  water  of  the  turbine  wheel  pit  of  the 
vertically  mounted  wheel  such  as  Mr.  Rowlands  uses  and  at  its 
upper  end  is  connected  by  gears  and  belts  to  the  machinery  to  be 
driven.  If  the  wheel  is  mounted  horizontally  the  shaft  projects 
out  through  the  wheel  pit  or  out  from  one  or  both  ends  of  the 
turbine  case  and  is  connected  at  either  one  or  both  ends  of  the 
turbine  case,  directly  or  indirectly,  with  the  machinery  to 
be  used.  The  picture  on  the  following  page  shows  a  Hunt- 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 


Francis  Runner,  a  typical  runner  of  the  highest  type  for  develop- 
ing power  from  high  heads  of  water.  On  the  right  hand  side  of  this 
page  is  a  picture  of  a  Hunt-McCormick  Runner  designed  to 
develop  the  maximum  power  under  low  heads  and  the  most  usual 
conditions.  Set  either  of  these  runners  in  a  barrel  to  fit,  wedge  a 
steel  shaft  into  the  hole  in  the  center  and  you  have  a  turbine 
water  wheel,  rough  and  crude,  it  is  true,  but  beautifully  illustrating 

the  utter  simplicity  of  the  machine, 
merely  two  pieces  of  metal  in  a  barrel. 
It  is  the  curve  of  the  runner's 
buckets,  those  fourteen  or  fifteen  metal 
blades  that  radiate  out  from  the  center 
of  the  runner,  much  like  the  petals  of 
a  flower,  that  give  the  runner  its  effi- 
ciency. Bend  those  buckets  the  tiniest 
fraction  of  an  inch  either  way  at  any 

A  HUNT-FRANCIS  RUNNER,  THE  Point>  and  at  once  y°u  have  cut  down 
HEART  OF  THE  TURBINE  WATER  the  efficiency  of  the  wheel.  You  can 
WHEEL  FOR  HIGH  HEADS  check  yp  that  assertion  most  emphati- 

cally by  bending  the  blades  of  an  electric  fan.  Flatten  the  electric 
fan's  blades  or  twist  them  farther  around  and  you  can  eliminate 
the  ability  of  the  fan  to  throw  out  a 
current  of  air.  However,  the  thin, 
flexible  blades  of  an  electric  fan,  set 
with  only  a  practical  and  fair  degree  of 
accuracy,  should  not  be  compared 
with  the  solid,  heavy,  thick,  tough  and 
unyielding  buckets  of  the  turbine  run- 
ner>  set  and  curved  at  every  point  with 
the  highest  mathematical  skill  and 
proved  out  by  many  years  of  actual 
working  and  by  exhaustive  tests.  The 
buckets  of  the  Hunt-Francis  Runner 
have  been  developed,  through  years  of  work,  to  absorb  every  atom 
of  power  it  is  possible  to  take  from  high  heads  of  water.  In  a 
like  way  the  Hunt-McCormick  Runner  has  been  developed  to  take 
all  the  power  that  is  to  be  had  from  lower  falls  of  water  and  the 
more  usual  conditions  of  water  power  development.  The  water 
crowds  into  these  runners  through  gates  and  in  a  solid,  unending 


A  HuNT-McCoRMICK   RuNNER 

FOR  USUAL  CONDITIONS  IN 
WATER  POWER  DEVELOPMENT 


THE    TURBINE    WHEEL 


39 


A  1  OME  POWER  PLANT  AND   MACHINE 
SHOP  WITH  VERTICALLY  MOUNTED  TUR- 
BINE  WHEEL   IN  A   CASE   BENEATH  THE 
POWER  HOUSE 


mass  presses  and  shoves  against  every  tiny  atom  of  surface  of  the 

runners.  The  runners  re- 
act to  this  constant  pressure 
and  move,  revolve,  and  as 
the  pressure  of  the  water 
upon  them  is  smooth,  con- 
stant, solid,  unending,  the 
revolving  of  the  turbine  run- 
ner is  absolutely  smooth 
and  without  the  tiny  jars 
and  jerks  that  always  must 
be  present  in  the  most  per- 
fect of  gasoline  motors  or  in 
reciprocating  steam  engines. 

Hence  turbine  water  wheels  are  termed   reaction  wheels,  while 

rim-leverage  wheels  which  operate  by  the  combined  kick  or  blow 

of  the  water  striking  upon  them,  and  the  gravity  weight  of  the 

water  carried  down  by  them  are  called  impact-gravity  wheels. 
On  this  page  are  shown  above,  a  picture  of  a  little  turbine 

wheel  home  water  power  plant, 

with    a    vertically    set    turbine 

wheel  in  an  iron  case  immediately 

beneath    the    power    house.     At 

the  left  of  the  power  plant  is  the 

dam,    with    pipe    carrying    the 

water  from  the  dam  to  the  wheel. 

A   belt   making   a    quarter   turn 

transmits  the  power  from  the  tur- 
bine wheel  to  a  line  shaft  on  the 

ceiling  of  the  house  and  operates 

through    belts    and    pulleys    the 

machinery   in   the   power  house. 

Two  timbers  on    a    rough    stone 

wall  support  the  turbine  wheel. 

The  second  picture  is  an  enlarged 

diagram  of  the  iron  case  used  for 

this  turbine.     A  is  the  water  in- 
take, G  the  power  shaft  and  B  the 

shaft  to  open  and  close  the  gates  and  control  the  flow  of  water  to 

the  wheel.     The  water  .discharges  through  the  bottom  of  the 


Gate  Shu*  t 


AN   INEXPENSIVE   IRON    CASE  FOR 

VERTICALLY  MOUNTED  TURBINE 

WHEEL 


40  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

turbine  case.  In  this  picture  two  I  beams  support  the  case  and 
wheel,  but  the  wooden  timbers  shown  in  the  picture  of  the  power 
plant,  would  serve  as  satisfactorily.  This  turbine  case  could  be 
set  in  a  corner  of  the  power  house  just  as  well,  but  in  this  case  it  is 
placed  lower  down,  beneath  the  power  house,  to  get  a  higher  head 
of  water  in  the  short  fall  from  the  dam  to  the  wheel. 


WOOD     TURBINE     WHEEL     CASE,     THOROUGHLY 
SUBSTANTIAL  BUT  WITH  A  MINIMUM  OF  COST 

A  sturdy  and  cheaper  turbine  wheel  case  for  this  little  hcfrne 
power  plant  is  shown  in  the  illustration  on  this  page.  It  may  be 
set  beneath  or  inside  the  power  house.  As  shown  here  A  is  the 
place  where  the  pipe  carrying  the  water  joins  onto  the  case,  G  is 
the  power  shaft  and  the  wheel  in  the  center,  labeled  "Gate  Shaft," 
is  attached  to  a  small  hand  wheel  by  a  rope  to  enable  the  flow  of 
water  to  the  wheel  to  be  quickly  and  easily  controlled  by  a  small 
hand  wheel. 


THE    TURBINE    WHEEL  4! 

A  turbine  runner  could  be  set  in  a  rain  barrel  and  be  made  to 
operate,  we  said  in  illustrating  the  simplicity  of  the  mechanism, 
but  a  more  mechanically  perfect  arrangement  than  only  a  rain 
barrel  turbine  wheel  case  must  be  provided,  sothewheelisequipped 
with  gates  to  control  the  flow  of  water  into  the  runner.  So,  just 
as  the  turbine  runner  has  been  perfected  to  meet  different  con- 
ditions, so  the  gates  and  casings  have  been  adapted  to  furnish  the 
best  service  under  particular  or  varying  requirements.  On  page 


TURBINE  WHEEL  IN 
BALANCE  GATE  CASING 


TURBINE   WHEEL  IN 
CYLINDER  GATE  CASING 


16  was  shown  a  picture  of  a  turbine  wheel  mounted  in  a  pivot  gate 
casing.  On  this  page  are  drawings  of  a  Balance  Gate  Casing,  at 
the  left,  and  of  a  Cylinder  Gate  Casing,  at  the  right.  The  runners 
are  inside  the  casings  and,  of  course,  cannot  be  seen.  Whatever 
the  form  of  gate  used  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  gate  is  only 
a  throttle,  to  start,  stop,  and  regulate  the  speed  of  the  wheel.  The 
gates  are  designed  to  let  the  water  into  the  runners  in  a  solid 
volume,  with  a  minimum  of  loss  in  friction  and  without  eddy 
currents. 

So  far  we  have  looked  at  the  turbine  wheel  largely  as  being  set 
vertically.     This  sometimes  is  the  more  convenient  arrangement 


42  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

in  small  plants,  as  with  Mr.  Rowlands,  who  simply  stuck  a  small 
Pivot  Gate  Casing  and  its  runner  in  the  bottom  of  a  box  of  water 
and  without  using  a  pipe  or  case  as  shown  in  the  picture  on  page 
16.  A  turbine  will  develop  as  much  power  mounted  vertically  as 
when  mounted  horizontally.  But  the  vertically  mounted  turbine 
wheel  usually  has  to  have  a  quarter  turn  belt  connection  or  a 
crown  gear  to  transmit  its  power  to  line  shaft  or  to  a  machine. 
Quarter-turn  belting  and  crown  gears,  no  matter  how  well  ad- 


TURBINE  WHEEL  IN  HORIZONTAL  WOOD  CASE 


justed,  eat  up  some  power  because  of  friction.  The  horizontally 
mounted  turbine  wheel,  on  the  other  hand,  if  connected  by  belts, 
does  not  require  the  quarter-turn  arrangement,  and  thus  one  small 
source  of  friction  and  power  loss  is  eliminated.  Neither  does  it 
require  crown  gears,  and  better  still  it  may  be  keyed  direct  to  1jhe 
machine  it  is  to  drive.  When  connected  by  belt  or  cable  the  most 
direct  connection  is  available  with  horizontally  mounted  turbine 
wheels  and  thus  loss  in  friction  is  greatly  reduced.  On  this  page 
is  shown  a  horizontally  mounted  turbine  wheel  in  a  substantial  and 
inexpensive  wooden  case.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  power  shaft 
extends  through,  from  A  to  A,  and  that  the  shaft  has  pulleys  at 
both  ends  for  belt  connections  with  electric  generator,  line  shaft, 


THE    TURBINE    WHEEL 


43 


cream  separators,  saws,  feed  mills  or  any  other  form  of  stationary 
machinery  that  may  be  required.  Such  a  horizontally  mounted 
turbine  wheel  could  be  placed  in  the  corner  of  the  kitchen  of  the 
average  country  home  and  be  operated  entirely  successfully  with- 
out interfering  with  the  regular  work  of  the  kitchen,  if  the  ma- 
chinery driven  by  the  turbine  wheel  were  not  in  the  way.  The 
turbine  itself,  in  the  sizes  for  small  plants,  would  not  occupy  as 


TURBINE  WHEEL  IN  HORIZONTAL  STEEL  CASE 


A  PAIR  OF  TURBINE  WHEELS  IN  HORIZONTAL  STEEL  CASE 


much  space  as  a  piano  and  all  the  equipment  it  would  require 
would  be  a  wood  or  steel  plate  pipe  through  the  wall  or  floor  of  the 
kitchen,  to  supply  it  with  water,  and  a  discharge  pipe  through  the 
kitchen  floor  to  take  the  water  away.  The  same  runner  or  turbine 
wheel  may  be  mounted  horizontally  in  a  still  more  refined  manner, 
in  a  steel  or  cast  iron  case,  as  shown  in  the  first  picture  below, 
or  a  pair  of  wheels  may  be  mounted  together  as  shown  in  the 
second  picture  on  this  page.  The  opening  shown  in  the  top- 


44  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

center  of  the  upper    picture  is  where  the  pipe  joins  the   case. 
The  view  of  the  pair  of  wheels  is  from  the  opposite  side. 

Not  only  is  there  a  water  wheel  for  every  stream,  but  there  is 
an  arrangement  that  fits  most  practically  every  particular  need  or 
peculiarity  of  any  water  power  development,  anywhere,  large  or 
small.  On  this  page  is  a  turbine  wheel  with  both  discharge  and 
supply  pipes  entering  the  wheel  case  directly  underneath  the  floor. 


A  TURBINE    WHEEL   OUTFIT  TO   BE   CONNECTED   TO  CITY    WATER 
MAINS  FOR  OPERATING  AN  ELECTRIC  GENERATOR 

The  picture  on  the  opposite  page  shows  our  novel  arracge- 
ment  of  mounting  a  turbine  wheel  on  a  horizontal  shaft.  It  is 
wholly  outside  the  building  but  is  controlled  by  a  gate  shaft  from 
inside.  The  water  is  carried  to  the  wheel  by  a  pipe  or  penstock 
running  under  the  basement  floor,  entirely  out  of  the  way  and  per- 
mitting the  floor  above  to  be  given  over  entirely  to  the  turbine 
shaft  and  the  machinery  it  supplies.  By  this  method  all  the 
effective  head  of  water  available  was  conserved.  This  installation, 


THE    TURBINE    WHEEL 


45 


too,  replaced  an  old,  vertically  mounted  wheel  and  did  away  with 
its  old  mill  race,  clumsy  wheel  pit  and  its  power-eating  and  space- 
occupying  gears.  No  matter  what  the  arrangement  or  type  of 
turbine  wheel  that  is  installed,  from  the  most  inexpensive  arrange- 
ment of  a  wheel  and  gate  casing  submerged  in  wooden  box,  the 
cheap  little  wooden  case  inclosing  a  turbine  wheel,  or  the  more 


TURBINE  WHEEL  MOUNTED  ON  THE  OUTSIDE  OF  A  POWER  HOUSE 

refined  mounting  of  a  pair  of  wheels  in  a  scroll  case  shown  in  the 
lower  picture  on  page  43,  or  in  any  other  of  a  variety  of  forms,  the 
water  motor  itself,  the  runner,  is  the  same;  and  the  little,  inexpen- 
sive turbine  wheel  is  just  as  efficient,  just  as  durable  just  as  able 
to  fill  100  per  cent  of  its  intended  purpose,  as  are  the  larger  and 
more  refined  mountings.  In  these  pages  we  are  trying  to  show 
plainly  and  fairly  the  opportunities  in  the  development  of  the 
small  stream.  On  page  176  are  suggestions,  the  answers  to  which 
will  enable  the  Rodney  Hunt  Machine  Company,  Orange,  Massa- 
chusetts, to  reply  specifically  and  accurately  as  to  the  possibilities 
of  developing  home  or  small  town  power  sites.  The  Rodney 
Hunt  Machine  Company  will  be  glad  to  advise  as  to  methods  of 
harnessing  the  water  power  of  any  stream,  large  or  small. 


46 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


On  this  page  is  a  picture  of  another  arrangement  of  a  pair  of 
turbine  wheels,  with  Hunt  Balanced  Gate  on  a  horizontal  shaft 
in  a  depressed  top  T  Center  draft  chest.  A  few  of  these  arrange- 
ments are  shown  here,  not  that  they  may  directly  benefit  the 
investigator  of  home  or  small  town  water  power  development, 
but  that  he  may  glimpse  the  wonderful  perfection  turbine  water 
wheels  have  attained.  On  pages  47  and  48  are  pictures  of  larger 
water  power  plants. 


ANOTHER  FORM  OF  TURBINE  WHEEL  MOUNTING — No  MATTER  How  PECULIAR 

AND  COMPLEX  THE  NEEDS  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  A  WATER  POWER  PROJECT 

MAY  BE,  THERE'S  A  WATER  WHEEL  TO  FIT  THEM. 


48 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


TURBINE  WATER  WHEELS  FOR  A  SOUTH  AMERICAN  POWER  PLANT 

A  turbine  outfit  to  develop  3,500  horse  power  for  the  Cordoba  Electric 
Light  &  Power  Company,  Cordoba,  Argentine  Republic,  South  America. 
An  unusual  feature  in  this  plant  is  shown  in  the  two  vertical  sliding  gates  in  the 
background.  These  gates  open  and  close  the  water  supply  pipe  leading  to 
either  unit.  The  picture  was  made  in  one  of  our  setting-up  rooms  before 
shipment.  Later  we  supplied  the  same  company  with  a  similar  plant  to 
generate  2,000  horse  power. 


THE    RIM-LEVERAGE    WHEEL 


49 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  RIM-LEVERAGE  WHEEL 

MAN'S  first  efforts  in  developing  power  and  lifting  water  were 
with  water  wheels,  overshot  and  undershot  wheels,  more 
correctly  termed  Rim-Leverage  Wheels.  In  Syria  and  Egypt 
today  there  still  are  in  use  the 
same  clumsy,  inefficient  type  of 
water  wheels  used  there  thousands 
of  years  ago.  The  ancients  seemed 
to  realize  fully  the  wonderful  wil- 
lingness of  water  to  work,  but  they 
were  powerless  to  develop  it,  for 
they  lacked  the  technical  knowledge 
that  is  the  heritage  of  the  present 
scientific  age.  In  comparatively 
recent  years  the  industrial  world, 
particularly  the  English,  spurred 
by  the  great  strides  in  manufacture 
that  followed  the  invention  of  the 
spinning  jenny,  sought  to  develop 
water  power  by  increasing  the  size 
of  these  old  wheels  hugely.  On  the 
Isle  of  Man,  at  Saxy,  is  such  a 
wheel  entirely  of  wood  and  72}^ 
feet  in  diameter,  the  largest  water 
wheel  known.  On  page  50  is  a  picture  of  a  Philippine  water 
wheel,  showing  how  the  other  side  of  the  world  has  tried  to  do  its 
part  in  making  use  of  the  billions  of  barren  horse  power  that  run 
to  waste  in  the  earth's  streams. 

Yet  despite  the  age-old  knowledge  and  use  of  water  wheels  it 
remained  for  a  present  generation  to  see  born  an  almost  mech- 
anically-perfect Rim-Leverage  Wheel,  capable  of  standing  along- 
side the  best  that  electrical,  steam,  and  internal  combustion 
engineering  has  produced  in  efficiency,  practicability,  durability, 
and  genuine  worth.  The  picture  of  the  little  home  water  power 
electric  plant  on  page  51,  shows  such  a  water  wheel  creation  as 


A      RIM-LEVERAGE      WATER 
WHEEL,  THE  CHEAPEST  PRAC- 
TICAL    POWER    DEVELOPING 
MACHINE  YET  DEVISED. 


5O  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

typified  in  the  Hunt  Steel  Rim-Leverage  Wheel  or  in  the  Hunt 
Wood  Rim-Leverage  Wheel.  Between  the  picture  on  this  page  of 
the  awkward,  straggling  contrivance  towering  into  the  air,  and  the 
little  water  wheel  pictured  on  page  39,  lie  thousands  of  years  of 
human  progress.  The  modern,  scientific,  little  Rim-Leverage 
Wheel,  as  shown  in  operation  in  the  small  home  power  plant  on 
page  51,  and  as  pictured  in  detail  on  page  49,  shows  a  close-knit, 


A  PHILIPPINE  WATER  WHEEL 

REPRODUCED    BY    COURTESY    OF    LA    HACIENDA,     BUFFALO,    N.    Y. 

perfectly  balanced  machine,  rearing  a  slender  height  of  not  more 
than  six  feet  and  smaller  in  diameter  than  the  drive  wheels  of 
many  railway  locomotives.  It  is  made  in  three  diameters,  4,  5, 
and  6  feet,  and  with  a  "tire"  width,  or  face,  of  only  6  inches  where 
the  wheel  is  to  be  used  only  to  drive  a  pump  for  supplying  a  com- 
plete water  works  system  of  a  large  or  a  small  country  estabSsh- 
ment.  Where  the  Rim-Leverage  Wheel  is  to  supply  power  for  an 
electric  generator  and  other  machines,  as  well  as  to  drive  a  pump, 
the  diameters  of  the  wheels  are  the  same,  4,  5,  or  6  feet  or  more, 
but  the  face  may  be  as  much  as  6  feet.  The  wheel  6  feet  in 
diameter  and  with  a  face  of  6  feet,  with  a  proportionate  flow  of 
water,  of  course  will  furnish  much  more  power  than  the  wheels 
that  are  4  or  5  feet  in  diameter. 


THE    RIM-LEVERAGE    WHEEL 


These  modern  Rim- Leverage  Wheels  were  developed,  not  by 
the  mistaken  plan  of  seeking  to  overcome  defects  and  crudities 
by  mere  size,  but  by  making  a  very  small  wheel  mechanically 
perfect.  You  perhaps  have  noticed  how  teeth  of  the  cogs  in  the 
gears  of  an  automobile,  or  in  any  other  well  made  machine,  are 


• 


RIM-LEVERAGE   WHEEL  OPERATING  A 
HOME    ELECTRIC    AND  POWER  PLANT 

curved.  The  curve  of  those  cog  teeth  is  not  by  guesswork  or 
accident,  but  entirely  according  to  carefully  determined  mathe- 
matical formulas  so  that  the  interlocking  teeth  roll  or  revolve  on 
one  another  with  a  minimum  loss  of  power  in  friction.  So  it  is 
with  the  blades  or  buckets  of  a  Rim-Leverage  Wheel,  which  are 
curved,  spaced  and  set  with  the  utmost  skill  of  engineering 
practice  backed  up  by  years  of  practical  experience  and  constant 
testing.  The  wheel  is  balanced  and  its  buckets  curved  and  set  so 
that  the  wheel  takes  every  possible  bit  of  power  from  the  falling 
water. 

It  is  because  of  this  perfect  mechanical  development  that  the 
Rim-Leverage  Wheel  is  practical  for  tiny  rivulets  having  a  flow  of 
only  a  few  gallons  of  water  a  minute.  To  make  clear  how  very 
tiny  a  rivulet  wrill  successfully  operate  a  Rim-Leverage  Wheel  and 
pump  attachment,  take  three  random  examples  of  the  range  of 
work  of  the  three  smallest  wheels: 

A  wheel  only  4  feet  in  diameter  and  with  only  a  6-inch  face 
will  pump  800  gallons  of  water  a  day  to  a  height  of  50  feet  and  al- 
most any  distance  for  farm  needs,  if  but  10  gallons  of  water  a 
minute  are  supplied  to  the  wheel. 


52  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

Or,  let  50  gallons  of  water  a  minute,  which  is  a  very  small 
flow  for  even  a  little  spring  branch,  run  down  a  tiny  wood  trough 
to  a  Rim-Leverage  Wheel  5  feet  in  diameter  and  with  a  6-inch  face, 
and  the  wheel  will  pump  2,500  gallons  of  water  a  day  to  the  top 
of  a  hill  100  feet  higher  than  the  pump  and  practically  any  distance. 

Or,  let  there  be  only  the  tiniest  sort  of  trickle  tumbling  onto 
a  6-foot  wheel  with  a  6-inch  face,  a  trickle  of  only  6  gallons  a 
minute,  and  the  wheel  will  pump  360  gallons  of  water  a  day  to  the 
top  of  a  hill  100  feet  high  and  on  the  far  side  of  the  valley  from  the 
pump. 


A  MODERN  RUSTIC  ELECTRIC  POWER  STATION 

These  Rim-Leverage  Wheels  and  pump  combinations  will 
lift  water  to  a  height  of  more  than  300  feet  and  to  practically  any 
distance.  As  the  wheel  is  small,  the  sizes  used  in  pumping  water 
are  inexpensive,  easy  to  install,  almost  indestructible  and  beyond 
doubt  the  best  and  most  dependable  p6wer  pump  yet  devised. 
They  have  a  big  advantage  over  windmills,  rams,  or  power  pumps 
of  any  type.  They  will  use  impure  water  from  one  stream  to 
operate  a  pump  to  deliver  water  from  a  distant  spring,  a  pond  or 
from  a  stream  of  pure  water  that  may  be  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  wheel  itself.  Unlike  the  windmill  they  do  not  have  to  be 
placed  over,  or  even  near,  the  supply  of  water  they  are  to  pump. 


THE    RIM-LEVERAGE    WHEEL  53 

Their  range  of  capacities  is  far  beyond  that  of  windmills  or  hy- 
draulic rams.  Other  advantages  of  the  Rim-Leverage  Wheel  and 
pump  combination  are: 

It  is  simple  and  needs  no  large,  expensive  piping. 

It  has  no  expensive  valves  to  wear  out. 

It  has  low  repair  expense. 

It  is  adaptable  to  a  variable  flow  of  water  with  equally  satis- 
factory results. 

It  is  noiseless. 

It  is  made  durable  and  almost  everlasting. 

It  is  a  picturesque  ornament  to  any  rural  landscape. 

IT  PUMPS  WATER  TO  A  HEIGHT  OF  MORE  THAN  300  FEET 
AND  TO  ANY  DISTANCE 

Hunt  Rim-Leverage  Wheels  are  made  with  steel  rims  or  with 
wood  rims.  Both  give  equivalent  results  in  work.  The  chief 
difference  is  that  the  wood  rim  wheel  is  cheaper  than  the  steel. 
These  smaller  wheels  with  only  6-inch  face  and  the  pump  combina- 
tion afford  fire  protection  and  a  constant  and  adequate  water 
supply  for  any  country  establishment.  They  may  be  used  to 
pump  through  service  pipes  to  the  household,  barns,  and  grounds, 
or  they  may  be  connected  to  a  pressure  tank  in  the  basement  or 
in  a  cellar,  or  buried  below  frost  line  out  of  doors,  or  to  an  elevated 
tank,  thus  providing  a  reservoir  of  water  under  pressure  for  fire 
protection  and  all  uses.  Whatever  the  size  of  the  Rim-Leverage 
Wheel  or  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  put,  either  pumping  water,  or 
furnishing  power  it  is  wholly  dependable.  The  frame  supporting 
the  wheel  is  anchored  to  a  pair  of  wood  timbers  or  sills  with  lag 
screws.  Anyone  can  install  the  wheel.  As  the  sills  are  placed  to 
be  just  barely  covered  with  water,  they  cannot  rot  and  thus  the 
whole  outfit  is  almost  everlasting.  The  supports  of  the  wheel  are 
large  and  rugged.  They  carry  liberal  sized  bearings  arranged  for 
self-oiling  cups.  The  water  may  be  led  to  the  wheel  through  a 
wood  trough,  chute  or  pipe,  or  through  an  iron  chute  or  pipe  or 
a  concrete  flume.  As  the  wheel  has  no  gates  or  valves  to  be  ob- 
structed, trash  or  rubbish  that  will  flow  through  the  pipe  or  trough 
will  run  over  the  Rim-Leverage  Wheel. 

Where  the  spring  branch  or  brook  has  sufficient  flow,  the 
larger  Rim-Leverage  Wheels  are  excellent  to  operate  home  power 
plants  as  well  as  to  pump  water.  They  can  operate  entirely 


54  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

successfully  under  much  smaller  vohimes  of  water  than  can  the 
turbine  water  wheel.  They,  of  course,  are  limited  as  power  pro- 
ducers, but  are  adequate  for  the  average  electric  plant  of  the 
country  home.  For  pumping  water,  they  undoubtedly  are  as 
perfect  an  arrangement  as  can  be  found.  The  pump  parts  are  of 
brass,  durable  and  simple  so  that  the  necessary  packing  in  all 
pumps  does  not  need  frequent  repacking.  The  suction  pipe  from 
the  spring  or  pond  supplying  the  water  to  be  pumped,  not  the  water 
that  operates  the  wheel,  should  be  %  to  I  inch  in  diameter.  The 
delivery  pipe,  from  pump  to  points  to  be  supplied,  should  be 
I/*}  to  I  inch  in  diameter.  Galvanized  iron  pipe  is  recommended. 
Both  pipe  and  pumps  should  be  put  below  frost  line  to  prevent 
them  from  freezing. 

The  quantity  of  water  for  household  use  may  be  estimated  at 

about  200  gallons  a  day  for  a  family  of  six.     With  a  pump  operated 

by  water  power  no  limit  within  reason  need  be  placed  on  the 

quantity  of  water  used  by  the  household  for  any  purpose,  since  it 

costs  nothing  to  run  such  a  pump  outfit  and  it  does  not  wear  out. 

For  farm  animals  the  approximate  allowances  of  water  daily  are: 

Each  cow  12  gallons 

Each  horse  10  gallons 

Each  hog  2%  gallons 

Each  sheep  2  gallons 

You  can  readily  determine  the  suitable  pump  and  wheel  re- 
quirements for  your  needs  by  sending  the  answers  to  the  following 
questions  to  the  RodneyHunt  Machine  Company,  Orange,  Massa- 
chusetts: 

Number  of  gallons  flow  a  minute  of  power  stream? 

Number  of  gallons  flow  a  minute  of  spring  supplying  the 
pump,  if  the  same  stream  is  not  to  be  used  to  furnish  power  and  for 
pump,  too? 

Total  flow  of  power  stream  in  feet?  4 

Distance  in  which  flow  is  obtained? 

Height  to  which  the  water  is  to  be  delivered? 

Approximate  flow  of  spring  in  feet? 

Approximate  distance  from  spring  to  pump? 

Distance  water  is  to  be  delivered? 

Estimated  number  of  gallons  required  each  day? 

What  water  supply  system  is  now  being  used? 


ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    HOME  55 


CHAPTER  VIII 
ELECTRICITY  IN  THE  HOME 

MEASLES,  that  childhood  ailment,  known  in  almost  every 
home  the  world  over,  has  one  characteristic  in  common  with 
electricity.  The  world  does  not  know  what  either  of  them  is.  It 
only  knows  how  to  handle  them,  to  derive  innumerable  benefits 
from  one,  to  curb  the  other  with  drawn  shades,  warmth  and  a 
liquid  diet. 

No,  not  a  far-fetched  comparison!  Only  an  illuminating  ex- 
ample to  show  how  inert  is  the  stock  argument  of  the  man  or 
woman  who  hesitates  in  having  the  money-saving  convenience  of  a 
home  or  town  water  power  plant  and  electricity  because  he  does 
not  "understand  electricity."  No  one  knows  what  electricity  is. 
No  one  knows  what  causes  the  measles.  The  point  is  that  we  do 
know  how  to  handle  them;  electricity, at  least, in  such  a  practically 
perfect  and  safe  way  that  it  is  the  best  thing  man  has  done  for  him- 
self with  his  mechanical  genius.  Although  the  greatest  authority  on 
electricity  does  not  know  what  electricity  is,  he  and  his  kind  have 
perfected  and  simplified  electrical  apparatus  until  the  most  in- 
expert man  can  install  and  operate  a  home  electric  light  and  power 
plant  successfully  and  easily,  with  only  a  few  plain,  printed  direc- 
tions to  guide  him. 

There  are  two  general  types  of  electric  generators.  The 
word  "generator"  has  succeeded  the  word  "dynamo"  as  the  name 
of  a  machine  that  develops  electric  current.  These  two  types  of 
generators  are  called  direct  current  generators  or  alternating  cur- 
rent generators,  according  as  they  produce  the  two  most  used  kinds 
of  electric  current,  direct  current  and  alternating  current.  All 
electric  batteries  produce  only  direct  current.  As  the  storage 
battery  is  a  convenient  part  of  the  home  or  small  town  electric 
plant,  the  use  of  a  direct  current  generator  eliminates  the  necessity 
of  changing  the  alternating  current  to  a  direct  current,  as  would 
happen  if  an  alternating  current  generator  were  used  to  charge 
the  storage  battery.  Still  another  reason  why  direct  current 


56  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

generators  are  used  almost  exclusively  in  small  town  and  home 
electric  plants,  instead  of  the  alternating  current  generator,  is  that 
the  direct  current  generator  costs  less  than  the  alternating  current 
generator  and  is  about  half  as  complicated.  The  alternating 
current  generator  must  be  equipped  with  a  small  but  complete 
direct  current  generator  to  excite  its  magnets.  The  direct  current 
generator  is  complete  in  itself.  Alternating  current  generators 
are  used  where  the  current  has  to  be  carried  a  considerable  distance 

While  we  indicated  in  the  beginning  paragraph  of  this  chapter 
that  electricity  was  as  easy  to  have  as  the  measles,  so  far  as  any 
expert  knowledge  might  be  required,  there  is  certain  very  definite 
knowledge  on  the  producing  and  handling  of  electricity  that  any 
user  or  producer  of  electricity  in  the  home  will  find  useful  and 
interesting. 

A  common  horseshoe  magnet,  such  as  children  play  with,  con- 
tains an  element  called  magnetic  flux  or  "current."  This  flux  is 
not  the  same  thing  as  the  electric  current  we  are  familiar  with  in 
different  forms  that  is  used  in  furnishing  light,  driving  machinery, 
electroplating  the  pages  of  this  book,  plating  silverware  and  doing 
a  thousand  other  useful  things.  No  one  knows  what  this  flux  is, 
or  what  electric  current  is.  That  is  the  hidden  part  of  electricity. 
But  whatever  flux  and  Current  may  be,  we  do  know  how  to  handle 
them,  to  make  them  work  at  gigantic  tasks  or  to  shear  their 
strength  at  will.  Take  a  child's  toy  horseshoe  magnet  in  one  hand 
and  a  piece  of  copper  wire  in  the  other  hand  and  wave  the  wire  up 
and  down  between  the  ends  or  two  poles,  the  positive  and  negative 
poles  of  the  magnet,  and  you  have  an  electric  generator.  That's 
all  any  electric  generator  is,  an  electric  conductor,  such  as  copper, 
passing  through  the  flux  that  flows  between  the  poles  of  a  magnet. 

A  few  years  ago  "magneto"  was  a  common  term  in  the  auto- 
mobile world.  A  magneto  is  a  simple  form  of  the  electric  genera- 
tor. It  consists  of  one  or  more  horseshoe  magnets.  At  the  opf  n 
end  of  the  magnet  or  magnets  an  electric  conductor,  commonly 
called  an  armature  in  generator  construction,  is  placed  so  that  it 
may  revolve  between  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  As  it  revolves  the 
armature  cuts  the  flux  or  lines  of  force,  that  "flow"  constantly 
between  the  poles  of  the  magnet,  and  thus  electric  current  is  pro- 
duced. The  telephone  that  you  have  to  "ring  up"  and  "ring 
off,"  used  in  many  rural  telephone  systems,  has  a  similar  magneto, 


ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    HOME  57 

or  electric  generator,  in  each  telephone  box.  When  you  turn  the 
little  crank  at  the  side  of  the  telephone  you  turn  an  armature 
inside  the  box.  As  you  turn  that  crank  your  hand  supplies  to  the 
magneto  the  necessary  motive  force  exactly  as  does  water  power,  a 
steam  or  gasoline  engine  that  operate  a  larger  electric  generator. 

Automobile  electric  units  have  advanced  from  the  magneto 
type  of  generator  to  the  abler,  more  perfect  type  used  in  home 
electric  plants  wherein  the  horseshoe  magnet  is  repjaced  with 
another  kind  of  magnet,  usually  several  of  them  in  each  generator 
and  referred  to  as  electro-magnets.  These  electro-magnets  consist 
of  fine  wire  wound  around  steel  or  iron  cores.  The  greater  number 
of  coils  around  the  magnet,  the  stronger  the  magnet.  To  "excite" 
the  electro-magnets;  that  is,  to  make  them  stronger,  a  part  of  the 
current  developed  by  the  generator  is  sent  or  shunted  through  the 
coils  of  the  electro-magnets.  Such  generators  are  termed  shunt- 
wound  generators  and  are  the  most  generally  used  form  of  genera- 
tors today.  In  series-wound  generators  all  the  current  of  the 
generator  is  sent  through  the  field  coils.  The  type  of  winding, 
however,  is  a  technical  problem  for  the  experts.  We'll  leave  it  to 
them,  since  most  of  us  have  some  other  specialty  to  worry  over. 

While  waving  a  wire  between  the  poles  or  ends  of  a  toy  magnet 
in  reality  forms  an  electric  generator  it  is  mechanically  a  very  im- 
perfect generator.  There  must  be  a  better  way  of  doing  it,  so,  an 
electro-magnet  or  several  of  them,  are  placed  around  a  common 
center,  the  shaft  of  the  generator.  On  this  shaft  an  insulated 
drum  or  cylinder  is  fastened  so  that  the  drum  revolves  between  the 
poles  of  the  magnets  with  only  a  fraction  of  an  inch  of  air  space 
between  the  circumference  of  the  drum  and  the  poles  of  the  mag- 
nets. The  drum  is  wound  with  insulated  wires,  which  are  the 
conductors  that  cut  the  magnetic  flux  as  the  drum  revolves,  and 
thus  produce  electricity.  The  ends  of  these  conductors  are 
soldered  into  a  much  smaller  "drum"  that  is  fastened  onto  the 
same  shaft  and  that  is  called  a  commutator.  The  commutator 
collects  all  the  electric  current  developed  and  delivered  by  the 
conductors  as  they  cut  the  magnetic  flux.  Carbon  "brushes''  are 
placed  to  touch  the  commutator  as  the  commutator  whirls  around 
with  the  drum  and  they  pick  up  the  electric  current  the  commuta- 
tor collects.  Wires  take  the  current  from  the  brushes  to  wherever 
it  is  to  be  used. 


58  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

To  revolve  the  armature  between  the  magnets  requires  power 
applied  to  the  shaft  of  the  generator.  There  are  two  main  ways  of 
applying  this  power  and  thus  generate  electricity.  Either  the 
shaft  of  the  generator  is  keyed  to  the  shaft  of  a  turbine  water 
wheel,  or  pair  of  turbine  wheels,  which  is  direct  connection.  Or, 
the  generator  is  connected  to  the  turbine  wheel  or  rim-leverage 
wheel  by  belt  or  cable  drive  or  to  a  line  shaft  operated  by  the 
water  wheel.  Either  style  of  connection  may  be  made  with  large 
or  small  water  wheels  and  with  either  type  of  generator,  direct  or 
alternating  current. 

The  picture  on  this  page  is  of  a  small  direct  current  generator, 
and  switchboard,  especially  designed  for  the  home  plant.  Shown 
here,  it  is  ready  to  be  belted  to  a  rim-leverage 
or  turbine  water  wheel  producing  two  to  five 
horse  power.  If  the  water  wheel  develops  more 
power,  as  the  plant  may  use  considerably  more 
power  to  operate  other  machines,  too,  the  install- 
ing of  the  generator  need  not  interfere  with  the 
working  of  the  rest  of  the  plant,  as  the  generator 
may  be  belted  to  a  line  shaft  run  by  the  turbine 
wheel  and  thus  be  operated  while  the  whole  plant 
is  in  full  running.  The  small  generator  fits  into 
the  larger  power  development,  since  it  takes  only 
a  tiny  bit  of  power,  and  since  it  increases  the  effic- 
iency of  the  plant,  just  as  electricity  will  increase 
the  efficiency  and  convenience  of  any  home  or 
work  by  providing  adequate  light.  As  it  stands  the  outfit  pic- 
tured here  is  a  complete  electric  plant.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
picture  is  the  generator,  compact,  simple  and  so  safe  that  a  child 
can  operate  it  without  danger  since  it  develops  only  40  volts. 
In  its  simplicity,  durability  and  efficiency  of  operation  it  answers 
fully  that  ugly  and  common,  but  expressive  phrase,  "fool  pro^f. " 
Above  the  generator,  is  the  switchboard,  supported  on  iron  pipe 
standards,  a  black,  marine-finished  panel  of  slate  bearing  all 
the  necessary  apparatus  for  complete  control  of  the  current. 
It  is  in  all  effect  a  simplified  and  perfect  miniature  of  the  big 
city  electric  plant.  We  called  it  a  complete  plant,  and  so  it  is, 
except  that  for  home  use  and  in  small  town  and  village  electric 
plants  it  is  more  convenient  to  add  a  storage  battery  to  the  equip- 


ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    HOME  59 

ment.  With  a  reserve  supply  of  current  in  the  storage  battery  it 
is  not  necessary  to  visit  the  power  plant  and  start  the  generator 
whenever  current  is  wanted.  Only  at  odd  intervals,  when  the 
battery  gets  low,  is  it  necessary  to  step  over  to  the  power  plant, 
start  the  generator  and  recharge  the  battery. 

Where  there  is  no  storage  battery  the  generator  must  be  run 
at  all  times  current  is  used,  even  if  the  current  needed  is  for  only  a 
small  incandescent  light.  It  isn't  always  right  handy  to  visit  the 
power  plant  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  or  in  the  day  time,  to  start 
the  generator,  so  solely  for  convenience  the  storage  battery  is 
added  to  the  equipment  of  the  home  plant.  So  far  as  money  cost 
in  operating  goes,  the  water  wheel  owner  could  run  his  electric 
generator  practically  all  the  time.  Electricity  made  by  water 
costs  nothing.  But  for  the  sake  of  convenience  the  reserve  supply 
in  the  storage  battery  is  highly  desirable  at  times.  Of  course,  if  the 
home  plant  is  operated  by  gasoline  engine  or  steam,  the  storage 
battery  is  absolutely  the  salvation  of  the  home  or  small  town  elec- 
tric plant.  It  costs  money  to  make  electricity  with  gasoline, 
kerosene,  and  steam. 

The  picture  on  page  60  is  of  a  generator  and  switchboard, 
and  a  i6-cell  storage  battery  in  a  battery  rack.  Connected  with  a 
rim-leverage  or  a  turbine  water  wheel  it  is  the  ideal  electric  plant 
for  the  country  home.  There  are  two  popular  sizes  meeting 
usual  conditions,  one  a  55-light  and  one  a  6o-light  outfit,  either 
of  which  is  very  elastic  in  application  to  the  needs  of  a  small  home 
or  a  larger  country  establishment.  In  addition  to  supplying  all 
the  electricity  for  lighting  needed  in  the  buildings  and  grounds  of 
the  average  country  home,  the  plant  furnishes  power  for  washing, 
churning,  sewing,  vacuum  cleaners,  fans,  and  heat  for  ironing  and 
cooking.  These  two  outfits  fit  as  nearly  as  possible  the  general 
run  of  needs  of  the  country  home  the  world  over.  They  are 
standardized  particularly  for  home  use  although  larger  size 
outfits  are  often  used.  Where  more  electric  current  is  desired, 
either  for  a  larger  country  establishment  or  to  furnish  light  and 
power  for  a  whole  community,  stores,  shops,  offices,  the  water 
power  owner  can  easily  enlarge  his  electric  plant  to  meet  those 
needs.  The  Rodney  Hunt  Machine  Company  would  be  pleased 
to  suggest  additions  to  the  home  plant  shown  here  to  increase 


6o 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


its  scope  of  usefulness,  or  to  suggest  other  electrical  equipment 
for  the  larger  or  special  needs  no  matter  what  the  size  of  the 
plant  contemplated. 


The  switchboard  shown  in  the  two  previous  pictures  of  home 
electrical  units  could  be  less  substantial  and  cheaper  and  perhaps 
give  satisfactory  service,  but  it  would  not  meet  the  requirements 
that  engineers  have  specified  for  the  fire  insurance  writers  and  so 
would  prevent  its  owner  from  obtaining  the  cheaper  fire  insurance 
rates  that  his  water  power  electric  plant  entitles  him  to.  It  is  a 
piece  of  thorough  workmanship.  At  the  top  is  a  double-throw, 
single-pole,  knife  switch  for  starting.  Just  below  are  two  dials: 
one  an  0-50  voltmeter;  the  other,  a  3O-ampere  ammeter.  In  the 
center  is  a  back-of-board  type  field  rheostat  for  regulating  voltage 
and  maintaining  the  correct  charging  rate  for  the  battery.  Plain 
and  simple  directions  on  a  small  panel,  two  glass  inclosed  fuses 
and  an  automatic  cut-out  to  prevent  current  flowing  from  the 
battery  back  into  the  generator  complete  the  board's  equipment. 
The  battery  consists  of  16  sealed  glass  jars,  each  cell  or  jar  generat- 
ing two  volts,  32  volts  in  all.  The  generator  develops  800  watts 
of  20  amperes  and  40  volts. 

The  average  man  or  woman  isn't  called  on  to  use  such  terms 
as  "watts,"  "amperes,"  "volts,"  and  "ammeters"  frequently 
enough  to  be  very  familiar  with  them.  But  since  he  cannot  es- 
cape putting  money  into  them  directly  or  indirectly,  if  he  lives  or 
appears  anywhere  outside  of  a  wilderness,  let's  straighten  these 


ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    HOME  6l 

terms  out  once  and  for  all.  A  "volt"  is  a  unit  of  electro-motive 
force  referred  to  by  technical  men  as  e.  m.  f.,  but  we  will  call  it 
pressure.  It  was  named  after  a  man,  Volta.  Amperes  we  will 
call  quantity  of  electricity.  That  is  not  an  exact  parallel  or 
analogy,  but  it  is  near  enough  for  practical  illustration.  It  is 
named  after  a  man,  Ampere.  An  ammeter  is  an  instrument  for 
recording  amperes  or  quantity  of  electrical  current.  Voltmeters 
record  the  pressure  of  electrical  current.  Watts  is  the  power  of 
electrical  current.  It,  too,  gets  its  name  from  that  of  a  leader  in 
electrical  research.  To  make  the  foregoing  clearer,  we  will  say 
that  20  cubic  feet  of  water  (quantity)  produce  a  certain  horse 
power  when  under  40  pounds  pressure  (volts).  Then  20  amperes, 
quantity,  under  40  volts,  pressure,  produce  so  many  watts,  power. 
How  many  watts?  Eight  hundred  watts,  since  20,  the  quantity, 
multiplied  by  40,  the  pressure,  give  800,  the  power  of  the  home 
plant  electric  generator  described  here.  A  kilowatt  is  I, coo  watts 
and  is  equal  to  1.34  horse  power.  Or,  746  watts  are  equivalent  to 
one  horse  power. 

On  a  calm  day  a  child  may  wade  waist  deep  at  the  sea  shore 
without  danger.  All  the  water  necessary  to  drown  an  army  is 
close  at  hand,  but  the  child  suffers  no  harm.  There's  no  pressure, 
no  "voltage."  But  let  a  strong  man  wade  knee  deep  in  a  little 
mountain  stream  ten  feet  wide  and  he  is  helpless,  swept  off  his  feet. 
The  tiny,  rushing  flow  of  water  has  pressure,  voltage.  So  with 
this  home  electric  plant,  it  has  all  the  quantity  of  electricity 
needed,  yet  at  such  low  voltage  or  pressure,  40  volts  at  the  genera- 
tor, that  the  current  gives  no  shock  and  is  scarcely  perceptible. 
Many  city  lighting  plants  carry  no  volts  on  home  lighting  circuits 
and  are  considered  to  be  without  danger.  That  voltage  gives  only 
a  slightly  unpleasant  shock.  Still  other  city  home  lighting  circuits 
carry  a  voltage  of  220,  which  is  not  considered  a  menace  to  human 
life.  However,  200  volts  is  a  safe  point  to  begin  with  in  consider- 
ing electrical  pressure  dangerous. 

The  home  plant  generator  develops  40  volts  while  the  battery 
delivers  only  32  volts.  This  margin  is  made  purposely  liberal  to 
care  for  the  inevitable  leaks  in  every  piece  of  electrical  apparatus 
that  ever  was  made,  and  to  insure  a  generous  current  to  the 
battery.  The  i6-cell  battery  has  one  more  cell  or  jar  than  usually 


62  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

is  supplied  in  similar  outfits.  This  gives  two  extra  volts  that  take 
care  of  the  "drop  in  the  line"  caused  by  the  fact  that  resistance  in 
electrical  conductors  absorbs  some  electricity  no  matter  if  the 
wire  carrying  the  current  is  no  more  than  a  foot  long.  The  battery 
cells  are  sealed,  too,  which  is  a  precaution  not  always  taken.  Dust 
settling  in  the  jars  will  lower  a  battery's  efficiency.  Batteries  are 
of  two  kinds,  primary  and  storage.  The  primary  battery  de- 
velops current  by  the  reaction  of  chemicals.  When  it  has  de- 
livered its  charge  it  is  dead  forever.  The  storage  battery  is  made 
by  immersing  two  electrical  conductors,  called  electrodes,  in  a 
conducting  solution,  usually  pure  water  and  chemically  pure 
sulphuric  acid.  The  solution  is  called  the  electrolyte.  Before  the 
storage  battery  can  operate  it  must  be  charged  with  a  direct 
electric  current.  This  current  sets  up  a  chemical  action  in  the 
electrolyte,  produces  a  sort  of  tension  that  the  battery  triec  to 
throw  off  and  return  to  its  original  state  before  the  charging  current 
was  introduced.  The  battery  sends  current  into  the  electrical 
circuit  in  trying  to  "settle  back"  to  its  original  state.  When  a 
storage  battery  has  delivered  a  large  part  of  its  charge  its  activity 
is  renewed  by  being  recharged  from  the  generator. 

Electric  irons  and  ranges  and  electric  motors  that  develop 
more  than  J4  horse  power  should  not  be  operated  from  the  battery 
alone.  The  generator  should  be  running  while  they  are  in  use, 
because  they  discharge  the  battery  too  rapidly.  This  holds  true 
for  any  small  home  plant,  whether  operated  by  gasoline,  kerosene 
or  water  motors, and  it  is  here  again  that  the  rim  leverage  wheel  and 
the  turbine  wheel  have  a  distinct  advantage  in  the  home  power 
plant.  It  costs  nothing  to  run  the  generator  and  make  electricity 
with  water.  If  after  the  current  is  turned  off  from  motors,  irons 
or  electric  ranges,  and  no  current  is  being  used,  some  one  forgets 
to  stop  the  generator,  no  harm  will  follow.  The  battery  will  be 
"floating  on  the  line."  The  condition  would  be  somewhat  jike 
operating  a  small,  disconnected  centrifugal  pump  in  the  bottom  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  The  pump  would  churn  up  a  lot  of  water 
within  itself,  but  it  wouldn't  make  a  ripple  on  the  surface. 

The  care  of  batteries  requires  chiefly  one  thing,  that  the  cells 
be  kept  filled  with  distilled  water.  Rain  water  that  has  been 
caught  in  a  wooden  container  may  be  used  if  distilled  water  is  not 


ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    HOME  63 

available.  But,  spring,  well  or  ground  water  of  any  kind  should 
not  be  used.  Full  directions  are  furnished  with  each  battery  and 
a  hydrometer,  which  is  a  simple  gla.ss  instrument  resembling  a 
thermometer,  is  provided  with  each  outfit.  By  placing  the  hydro- 
meter in  a  cell  the  strength  of  that  cell  is  immediately  apparent. 
How  simple  is  the  care  of  batteries  is  shown  by  a  recent  incident, 
when  a  city  man  was  showing  a  country  cousin  the  sights  and 
stopped  at  a  garage  to  have  his  automobile  battery  tested.  An 
"expert"  came  out  and  very  expertly  poked  a  hydrometer  into 
each  cell  of  the  battery.  He  said  the  battery  tested  1200.  The 
country  cousin  admiring  the  man's  deftness  casually  asked, 
"Twelve  hundred  what?" 

"Twelve  hundred  volts,"  replied  the  "expert,"  and  neither 
he  nor  the  city  man  understood  why  the  country  cousin  laughed. 
The  country  cousin  had  a  home  electric  plant  of  his  own  and  knew 
that  the  1200  indicated  on  the  hydrometer  referred  to  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  electrolyte  of  the  battery  and  thus  indicated  the 
strength  of  the  battery.  The  little  6-cell  battery  of  that  motor  car 
developed  a  current  of  only  12  volts.  Yet  that  "expert"  was  a 
good  mechanic,  a  worth-while  citizen  and  had  been  "experting" 
on  motor  cars  several  years  very  satisfactorily  in  a  practical  way. 
The  automobile  proves  the  absolute  practicability  of  the  home 
electric  plant,  for  the  automobile  carries  a  complete  electric  plant 
and  is  practical  and  dependable  under  the  clumsiest  hands  and 
the  most  inexpert  intelligence.  Still  the  automobile  electric  plant 
can  hardly  be  compared  in  durability,  simplicity,  and  efficiency 
with  the  home  electric  plant.  The  motor  car's  batteries  last  about 
two  years  on  an  average  while  the  home  lighting  plant  battery  may 
last  seven,  eight  or  even  ten  years  before  having  to  be  replaced. 

Sometimes  a  reducing  regulator  for  charging  automobile  stor- 
age batteries,  is  arranged  to  be  mounted  on  the  wall  and  connected 
to  the  switchboard  of  the  home  plant  described  here.  It  may  be 
used  to  charge  automobile  storage  batteries  of  3,  6,  9,  12,  or  15 
cells  at  any  rate  from  5  to  20  amperes.  This  resistance  unit  illus- 
trates one  piece  of  switchboard  apparatus  we  left  for  description 
at  this  point,  the  rheostat.  The  reducing  regulator  and  rheostat 
are  both  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  voltage  when  desired. 
They  do  this  by  compelling  the  current  to  flow  through  conductors 


64  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

of  different  resistance.  For  example,  you  may  lower  the  voltage 
of  a  current  by  compelling  it  to  flow  through  wrought  iron  instead 
of  copper,  since  wrought  iron  has  a  resistance  six  times  as  great  as 
copper. 

Because  of  this  question  of  resistance,  the  home  plant  trans- 
mission lines  leading  from  the  power  plant  to  the  buildings  to  be 
supplied  with  current,  should  not  be  smaller  than  No.  8  copper 
wire,  American,  or  Brown  and  Sharpe  (B.  &  S.),  wire  gage.  They 
should  be  covered  with  weather  proof  insulating.  Indoors  the 
wires  should  not  be  smaller  than  No.  14,  copper  wire,  B.  &  S. 
gage,  better  No.  12  size,  and  still  better  No.  10  size,  since  the 
smaller  numbered  wires  are  the  larger  in  diameter.  The  distance 
current  is  to  be  carried  determines  the  size  of  wires.  Wire  for  in- 
door use  should  be  covered  with  rubber  insulation.  The  larger 
the  diameter  of  the  wire,  the  less  the  resistance  and  the  less  the 
loss  in  current  in  transmission.  In  the  back  part  of  this  book  the 
B.  &  S.  wire  gage  is  reproduced  in  a  table.  The  largest  size  is  No. 
oooo,  which  is  0.46  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  smallest  size  is 
No.  36,  which  is  0.005  °f  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  size  of  wire 
decreases  by  one-half  with  every  three  numbers,  thus  No.  7  wire 
is  twice  the  diameter  of  No.  10  wire  and  No.  10  wire  is  twice  the 
diameter  of  No.  13  wire. 

A  piece  of  No.  10  copper  wire  1,000  feet  long  is  said  to  have 
an  electrical  resistance  of  one  ohm.  The  ohm,  so  called  after  one 
of  the  greatest  names  in  electrical  research,  is  the  unit  of  resistance. 
Using  the  i-ohm  resistance  of  1,000  feet  of  No.  10  copper  wire  as  a 
base,  the  same  size  and  length  of  wrought  iron  wire  would  have  a 
resistance  of  6  ohms.  All  substances  vary  in  this  property  of 
resistance  and  glass  and  rubber  have  such  tremendous  resistance 
to  current  that  they  are  used  to  insulate  electrical  carriers.  Now  a 
piece  of  copper  wire  twice  the  diameter  of  No.  10  wire  will  ha^ve 
just  half  the  resistance.  Thus  the  resistance  of  1,000  feet  of  I^o. 
10  copper  wire  is  I  ohm  while  the  resistance  of  1,000  feet  of  No. 
7  wire  is  J^  ohm.  Or,  No.  13  wire,  which  is  just  half  the  diameter 
of  No.  10  wire,  has  a  resistance  twice  that  of  No.  10  wire.  The 
smaller  the  wire  the  greater  the  resistance.  This  explanation  mav 
be  slightly  tedious,  but  its  importance  warrants  it. 


ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    HOME  65 

The  wires  of  the  home  electric  plant  should  run  in  pairs,  not 
singly.  Each  outlet  that  taps  the  current  for  light  or  power  must 
be  connected  to  the  two  wires.  This  is  termed  connecting  in 
parallel  or  multiple.  In  cities  we  perhaps  have  noticed  street 
lights  that  were  connected  to  but  one  wire.  This  wire  goes  out 
from  a  plus  or  positive  terminal  and  may  run  down  one  street  and 
through  a  number  of  lights  many  blocks.  Then  it  turns  and 
comes  back  on  another  street,  supplying  more  lights  and  finally 
ending  at  a  minus  or  negative  terminaf  on  the  switchboard  of  the 
power  plant.  This  is  called  connecting  in  series.  It  saves  on 
wire  but  it  requires  a  voltage  much  too  heavy  and  dangerous  for 
use  in  the  home  or  for  a  home  plant.  The  resistance  in  series  con- 
necting is  so  great  it  requires  a  heavy  voltage  to  overcome.  For 
example,  suppose  we  had  ten  incandescent  lamps  connected  in 
series  on  a  circuit  and  say  the  resistance  of  each  lamp  was  200 
ohms.  The  total  resistance  would  be  10  times  200  which  would  be 
2,000  ohms,  a  load  the  home  plant  could  not  carry.  But  suppose 
we  connected  the  ten  lamps  on  two  wires,  one  wire  running  from  a 
positive  terminal  and  the  other  running  to  a  negative  terminal  on 
the  switchboard  of  the  plant.  The  total  resistance  in  that  case 
would  be  200,  the  resistance  of  one  lamp,  divided  by  10,  the  num- 
ber of  lamps,  which  would  be  20  ohms,  a  very  light  load. 

The  reason  for  that  lower  resistance  of  connections  in  parallel 
can  be  demonstrated  by  referring  back  to  the  i,ooofoot  length  of 
No.  10  copper  wire,  which  has  a  resistance  of  I  ohm.  Suppose  we 
solder  another  i,ooo-foot  length  of  No.  10  copper  wire  to  the  first 
wire.  The  total  length  of  the  wire  over  which  the  current  would 
travel  would  then  be  2,000  feet  and  the  resistance  would  be  2 
ohms.  But  suppose  we  laid  those  two  wires  alongside  each  other 
and  fastened  them  together  at  both  ends.  The  current  would 
travel  then  only  1,000  feet,  but  as  the  wires  would  be  connected 
in  parallel  the  resistance  would  be  only  }/>  ohm.  By  connecting 
the  wires  in  parallel  we  have  doubled  the  size  of  the  conductor  and 
halved  the  resistance. 

In  wiring  a  building  the  wires  may  be  carried  in  metal  con- 
duits, which  is  very  desirable,  but  expensive.  That  method  is  not 
usual  in  home  wiring,  in  which  the  pairs  of  wires  usually  are 
supported  by  split  porcelain  knobs  or  by  porcelain  cleats.  The 


66  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

split  knobs  require  only  one  nail  or  screw  to  hold  them  and  thus 
have  an  advantage  over  the  cleats  that  require  two  nails  or  screws. 
The  nails  or  screws  of  knobs  should  penetrate  the  wood  they  are 
attached  to  a  distance  at  least  half  the  length  of  the  knob.  Where 
wires  penetrate  walls,  floors  or  wood  they  should  be  protected  by 
porcelain  tubing,  small  lengths  of  "crockery"  made  in  the  shape 
of  a  tube.  Flexible  circular  loom  is  used  where  it  is  desired  to  in- 
sulate curved  parts  of  the  circuit  and  consequently  the  straight 
porcelain  tubes  could  not  be  used.  It  is  preferable  to  have  wall 
switches  in  each  room,  but  where  expense  is  to  be  kept  down  to  the 
minimum  these  switches  may  be  eliminated  and  the  current  turned 
on  or  off  by  a  key  or  a  pull  chain  at  the  lamp  socket.  Pull  chain 
sockets  cost  about  twenty  cents  more  than  key  sockets  but  are 
worth  the  difference  where  no  switches  are  used,  since  they  do  not 
jar  fine  filament  lamps  as  much  as  does  the  turning  on  or  off  of  a 
key  socket.  At  least  have  a  pull  chain  socket  for  the  bathroom 
light.  Incandescent  lamps  out  of  doors  should  be  controlled  by 
an  indoor  switch  and  should  have  solid  sockets  that  cannot  be 
turned  on  or  off.  A  pull  chain  socket  is  next  best  for  out-of-doors 
lamps.  In  barns,  particularly  in  long  dairy  barns,  and  other 
large  buildings  it  is  very  desirable  to  connect  the  lamps  in  small 
circuits;  that  is,  one  switch  controlling  each  circuit.  Say  one  of 
these  circuits  has  five  lamps,  then  those  five  lamps  may  be  turned 
on  from  that  one  switch  while  work  is  being  done  in  that  part  of  the 
barn  and  the  rest  of  the  building  be  left  in  darkness  because  no 
light  is  needed  there.  Where  the  wires  enter  a  building  a  small 
double-pole  knife  switch,  fuses  and  lightning  arresters  should 
be  installed  in  a  closed  box. 

Chores  are  the  killing  part,  the  great  drawback  to  any  country 
home.  A  home  electric  plant  draws  the  teeth  of  this  bugbear. 
There  is  no  end  to  the  good  it  works.  Not  only  does  it  lighten 
household  and  farm  work,  but  it  makes  life  easier  and  more  atjjrac- 
tive.  The  bright  lights  that  lure  boys  and  girls  to  the  city  are 
electric  lights.  It  is  an  established  fact  that  the  home  with  an 
electric  plant  can  keep  its  sons  and  daughters  more  easily  and  has 
less  trouble  retaining  competent  help.  Any  farmhand  will  hesi- 
tate tcr  leave  a  place  equipped  with  electricity  'that  makes  his 
work  lighter.  If  he  is  married,  the  electric  lighted  tenant  house, 


ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    HOME  67 

possibly  supplied  with  water  from  a  pump  driven  by  the  home 
water  power  plant,  will  so  appeal  to  his  wife  that  she  won't  let 
him  quit  except  for  a  mighty  good  reason.  It's  easier  and  better 
to  live  where  there  is  electricity.  If  you  have  ever  fumbled  for 
matches  and  the  chimney  of  a  smelly  kerosene  lamp  when  a  child 
was  sick  at  night  you  will  realize  that  for  that  one  reason  alone, 
electric  light  when  a  member  of  the  family  is  ill,  the  home  electric 
plant  is  worth  its  price. 

Electricity  has  been  over-written  frequently  and  for  that 
reason  we  have  hesitated  to  make  claims  for  electric  heating. 
Heating  by  electricity  has  not  yet  reached  an  advanced  stage.  It 
can  be  done  successfully,  but  the  cost  is  so  high  that  the  richest 
men  would  not  attempt  to  heat  their  homes  entirely  by  electricity. 
Coal,  wood,  oil  or  gas  would  be  so  much  cheaper  as  heat  sources 
that  few  persons  would  pay  the  big  difference  to  heat  with  elec- 
tricity, if  they  had  to  buy  current  at  anything  like  the  average 
price.  However,  the  owner  of  a  home  water  power  electric  plant 
can  do  it  successfully  and  economically  if  he  installs  a  large 
enough  plant.  With  a  small  plant  the  current  is  required  for  light 
and  other  purposes  and  enough  of  it  to  furnish  sufficient  heat 
could  not  be  spared,  even  if  there  was  enough  current  alone  for 
heating.  However,  a  small  electric  heater  in  bathroom  or  bedroom 
to  take  the  chill  off  is  a  practical  convenience  on  slightly  chilly 
days  when  the  usual  home  fires  are  not  burning. 

Direct  current  generators  and  direct  current  motors  may  be 
used  interchangeably,  to  produce  or  to  use  current.  Because  of 
that  fact  most  of  us  have  met  and  had  experience  with  electric 
generators  more  often  than  we  realize,  only  the  generators  were  in 
the  form  of  electric  motors  in  electric  fans  and  other  machines.  If 
then,  the  small  electric  fan  motor,  knocked  about  from  year  to 
year  and  receiving  no  more  expert  attention  than  the  women  of  a 
household  or  the  office  boys  or  janitors  of  a  business  house  can 
give  it,  continues  to  give  years  of  useful  service,  how  much  more 
dependable  and  durable  and  self-sufficient  should  be  the  sturdier- 
built  electric  generator  of  the  home  power  plant? 


68  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


CHAPTER  IX 
DAMS 

DAMS  are  obstructions  placed  in  streams  solely  to  save  water 
and  to  direct  water  into  pipes  or  flumes  and  through  the 
pipes  or  flumes  to  apply  water  to  useful  purpose,  either  power 
development  or  irrigation,  or  both.  Whether  a  dam  is  a  tem- 
porary thing  of  brush  weighted  down  with  stones,  or  a  row  of  sand 
bags  or  a  few  flimsy  boards  nailed  together,  the  same  common  sense 
principles  apply  to  its  use  as  to  the  great  concrete,  arched  dam  that 
may  rear  a  hundred  feet  or  more  of  slender  height  between  the 
rock  walls  of  a  mountain  gorge  and  hold  back  millions  of  tons  of 
water  to  form  a  lake  covering  thousands  of  acres. 

These  principles  of  dam  construction  have  been  so  well 
worked  out  in  the  last  fifty  to  seventy-five  years  that  any  man  who 
knows  how  to  use  a  hammer  and  saw  and  the  multiplication  table 
can,  with  only  this  book  as  a  guide,  build  a  better  dam  and  a 
cheaper  dam  than  could  any  of  the  ancient  kings  who  had  the  re- 
sources of  kingdoms  and  workmen  by  the  tens  of  thousands  at 
their  disposal.  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  could  have  built  a  prettier 
dam,  undoubtedly,  but  he  couldn't  have  built  as  safe  a  dam  as  can 
the  man  of  today  with  an  ax  and  with  the  pockets  of  his  overalls 
filled  with  i6-penny  spikes.  Dams  that  are  built  right  cannot 
possibly  wash  out. 

Occasionally  in  the  development  of  small  water  power  plants 
it  is  not  even  necessary  to  build  a  dam  at  all.  If  there  is  enough 
water  at  the  head  of  the  riffle  or  rapids,  where  the  dam  naturally 
would  be  placed,  to  cover  the  intake  of  the  pipe  or  flume,  that  teads 
to  the  water  wheel  the  water  will  follow  the  law  of  gravity  down 
that  pipe  or  flume  and  through  the  water  wheel  just  as  readily  as  it 
will  obey  the  pull  of  gravity  that  sends  it  down  the  stream,  dashing 
its  force  against  the  stones  on  its  way  down.  This  fact  has  been 
mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  book,  but  it  cannot  be  too  firmly  im- 
bedded in  mind  that  a  pipe  or  flume  is  only  an  artificial  part  of  the 


DAMS  69 

stream  bed  and  that  the  stream  bed  itself  is  nature's  flume  or  pipe. 
Usually,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  build  a  dam  to  direct  the  water 
into  the  intake  or  to  get  a  higher  fall  of  water  than  the  stream 
naturally  affords.  To  raise  the  water  only  a  few  inches  or  perhaps 
a  foot  or  so  in  some  small  power  developments  temporary  dams 
are  used,  consisting  of  sand  bags  placed  across  the  stream,  or  of 
bundles  of  brush  weighted  or  staked  down,  or  of  stones  and  a  few 
boards.  These,  dams,  of  course,  leak  copiously  and  are  washed 
out  with  every  freshet,  yet  where  only  a  tiny  quantity  of  water  is 
needed  to  be  diverted  to  the  water  wheel  they  are  sometimes  prac- 
tical because  renewing  them  costs  next  to  nothing. 

These  temporary  dams  may  be  tossed  across  a  stream  with 
half  a  thought.  The  permanent  dam  must  be  gone  at  in  a  work- 
manlike manner.  It  may  be  of  earth,  wood,  stone,  concrete  or 
steel,  or  of  some  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these  materials. 
If  the  dam  is  of  earth,  always  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
water  never  can  be  allowed  to  flow  over  an  earth  dam.  If  it  does 
flow  over  an  earth  dam,  just  as  surely  as  water  runs  down  hill  that 
dam  will  wash  out.  Earth  dams  always  must  be  provided  with  a 
spillway  or  channel  of  sufficient  size  to  carry  off  all  excess  water. 
The  spillway  is  placed  near  the  top  or  crest  of  the  dam,  in  the 
center  or  at  either  side.  The  spillway  should  be  lined  tightly  with 
boards  or  concrete  so  that  at  no  point  does  the  running  water  come 
in  contact  with  the  earth  of  the  dam  as  the  water  flows  from  the 
upstream  side  of  the  dam,  through  the  spillway  and  down  to  the 
extreme  downstream  side  of  the  dam.  Earth  will  hold  still  water 
satisfactorily,  but  moving  water  will  wear  it  away. 

The  picture  on  page  70  shows  an  earth  dam  and  spillway.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  this  dam  is  very  wide  at  the  base  and  that  both 
upstream  and  downstream  the  sides  of  the  dam  slope  gradually  to 
the  crest.  On  the  upstream  side  of  this  dam  the  slope  or  slant  is 
determined  by  the  fact  that  for  each  one  foot  in  height  of  the  dam 
on  the  upstream  side  the  dam  is  three  feet  wide  at  the  base.  On 
the  downstream  side  the  dam  is  2^/9  feet  wide  at  the  base  to  each 
one  foot  in  height.  Lest  this  description  might  be  slightly  con- 
fusing, please  keep  in  mind  that  the  width  of  a  dam  is  the  distance 
from  the  upstream  side  of  the  dam  to  the  downstream  side.  The 
length  of  a  dam  is  the  distance  from  one  bank  of  the  stream  to  the 
opposite  bank. 


7O  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

The  crest  of  the  dam  may  be  just  wide  enough  for  a  footpath, 
or  by  widening  the  base  of  the  dam,  it  may  be  made  to  serve  as  a 
roadway  across  the  stream,  a  bridge  being  placed  across  the  spill- 
way. 

In  building  any  kind  of  permanent  dam,  all  mud,  vegetable 
matter  and  loose  material  must  be  removed  from  the  bed  of  the 
stream  where  the  dam  is  to  be  placed.  As  most  small  streams 


f  Rock.  Riprap 

Hand  Laid 


EARTH  FILL  DAM  WITH  CUTOFF  TRENCH  AND  PUDDLED  COVE 
usually  cut  their  beds  down  close  to  bed  rock  or  to  hard  clay  or 
other  stable  formation,  this  part  of  the  work  is  often  very  easy. 
The  really  difficult  part  in  earth  dam  construction  is  in  places 
where  the  dam  rests  on  solid  rock.  It  is  hard  to  keep  the  water 
from  seeping  between  the  dam  and  the  earth  and  finally  under- 
mining the  dam.  Perhaps  as  satisfactory  a  way  as  any  is  to  blast 
and  pick  out  a  series  of  ditches  in  the  rock,  each  ditch  being  about  a 
foot  deep  and  about  two  feet  wide  and  being  the  same  length  as  the 
base  of  the  dam.  Fill  each  of  these  small  ditches  with  three  or 
four  inches  of  wet  clay  and  puddle  it  by  walking  up  and  down  the 
ditches  or  driving  a  horse  up  and  down  them.  Add  more  layers 
of  wet  clay  and  repeat  the  puddling  process  until  the  dam  is 
several  inches  higher  than  bedrock.  The  upstream  half  of  the 
earth  dam  should  be  of  clay  or  heavy  clay  soil,  which  puddles  and 
is  impervious  to  water.  The  downstream  side  of  the  dam  should 
consist  of  lighter  and  more  porous  soil,  which  drains  out  quickly 
and  thus  makes  the  dam  more  stable  than  if  it  were  entirely  of  clay. 
Sometimes  satisfactory  earth  dams  are  only  two  feet  at  the  base 
for  each  one  foot  in  height,  but  the  foregoing  dimensions  for  earth 
dams  have  been  made  very  generous  purposely. 

The  kind  of  material  cheapest  to  use  and  Certain  natural  con- 
ditions of  the  dam  site  determine  the  type  of  dam  to  be  employed. 


DAMS  71 

Earth  dams  are  cumbersome  and  perhaps  the  least  to  be  desired, 
although  they  can  be  adapted  to  their  purpose  with  entire  satis- 
faction. The  universal  dam  is  perhaps  the  crib  dam,  which  con- 
sists of  poles,  rough  and  green  if  desired,  or  sawed  lumber,  criss- 
crossed on  one  another  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  feet  and  spiked 
together.  The  spaces  between  the  timbers  are  then  filled  with 


stones  and  the  upstream  side  or  face  of  the  dam  is  covered  with 
planks  to  prevent  the  dam  from  leaking  materially.  The  picture 
on  this  page  shows  a  small  crib  dam,  the  view  being  from  the  down- 
stream side  of  the  dam.  In  this  picture  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
work  of  planking  both  the  upstream  face  and  the  downstream  face 
of  the  dam  has  been  but  partly  finished  and  that  the  stream  has 
found  a  way  through  the  center  of  the  dam.  As  soon  as  all  the 
planks  are  nailed  in  place  on  the  upper  side  and  the  upper  face  of 
the  dam  partly  covered  with  clay,  as  is  shown  in  the  picture,  the 
water  will  cease  to  flow  through  the  dam  and  will  have  to  rise 
sufficiently  to  flow  over  it.  The  planks  are  nailed  on  the  down- 
stream face  of  the  dam.  not  so  much  to  stop  leaks  as  to  direct  the 
water  falling  over  the  crest  of  the  dam  and  not  permit  a  part  of  it 
to  leak  into  the  dam. 

Look,  please,  a  little  more  closely  at  this  small  picture.  At 
the  heel  of  the  dam;  that  is,  at  the  base  of  the  dam  on  the  down- 
stream side,  you  will  notice  a  row  of  planks  driven  into  the  stream 
bed.  These  are  priming  planks  to  prevent  water  seeping  under 
the  dam.  See  Fig.  B.  A  similar  row  of  priming  planks  is  driven 
into  the  bed  of  the  stream  at  the  toe  of  the  dam,  Fig.  A.  The  toe 


72  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

of  the  dam  is  the  base  of  the  dam  at  its  farthest  upstream  side. 
Of  course,  if  the  dam  rests  on  rock,  priming  plank  cannot  and  need 
not  be  driven,  but  where  the  dam  does  not  rest  on  rock,  priming 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  SMALL  CRIB  DAM.     A  AND  B  INDICATE 
PRIMING  PLANK 

plank  make  the  dam  much  more  serviceable,  more  stable.  Now 
water  wheels  use  such  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  the 
water  available,  in  most  instances  of  the  smaller  power  develop- 
ments, that  priming  plank  may  be  objected  to  quite  reasonably  as 
an  unnecessary  detail,  but  priming  plank,  just  the  same,  are  a  very 
workmanlike  and  sensible  thing  to  have  as  a  part  of  any  dam  not 
on  bedrock. 

Priming  plank  should  be  driven  to  "refusal,"  that  is,  as  far 
as  they  can  be  driven,  and  then  spiked  to  the  crib  dam.  The 
lower  end  of  the  plank  should  be  sharpened  thus,  i — i  The  plank 
should  not  be  sharpened  in  the  shape  of  a  J"V,"thus 
Priming  plank  should  be  driven  in  this  order:  V  Drive 
plank  A  first,  then  plank  B  and  the  other  planks 
alphabetical  order,  keeping  the  points  of  the 
planks  as  shown  in  the  drawing  herewith.  The^l^^^  rea- 

son for  this  is  that  each  successive  plank  is  thus  forced,  by 
the  mere  act  of  driving  the  plank,  closer  up  against  the 
preceding  plank.  Any  rough,  sound  lumber  may  serve  for 
priming  plank,  altho  chestnut  and  oak  are  recognized  as  excellent 
for  these  plank.  Much  care  must  be  taken  that  the  plank  are 
free  from  sap.  Two-by-sixes  make  excellent  priming  plank.  fc 

The  picture  on  page  73  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  somewhat 
larger  crib  dam.  You  will  notice  that  in  this  crib  dam  the  up- 
stream side  of  the  dam  is  very  steep,  almost  straight,  while  in  the 
picture  of  the  smaller  crib  dam  the  upstream  face  was  almost  flat. 
Either  design  is  good.  In  the  picture  of  the  larger  crib  dam  it  will 
be  noticed,  too,  that  the  downstream  side  of  the  darn,  call  it  the 
apron  of  the  dam,  is  in  a  series  of  stairsteps,  to  break  the  force  of 


DAMS 


73 


the  falling  water  gradually.  In  building  this  crib  dam  a  row  of 
green  poles  about  four  inches  in  diameter  was  placed  across  the 
stream  at  the  toe  of  the  dam;  in  fact,  this  first  row  of  poles  is  the 
toe  tip  of  the  dam.  If  the  stream  is  small,  one  pole  or  timber  will 
reach  across  it.  The  poles  or  timbers  used  should  be  of  varying 


lengths  so  that  there  will  be  no  joint  or  line  of  breakage  any  dis- 
tance in  the  dam.  Two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  lower  down  in  the 
stream  bed  another  pole  or  several  poles  are  laid.  Now  we  have  a 
number  of  poles  laid  across  the  stream  in  parallel  rows.  That  is 
the  first  course  of  poles.  The  second  course  of  poles  is  laid  to 
crisscross  the  first  course.  The  second  course  of  poles  is  imme- 
diately on  top  of  and  spiked  to  the  first  course.  The  poles  of  the 
second  course  are  laid  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  apart  in  parallel 
rows  and  parallel  to  the  banks  of  the  stream.  They  run  up  and 
down  stream.  Their  length  is  determined  by  the  height  of  the 
dam,  for,  for  each  one  foot  in  height  the  crib  dam  should  be  three 
feet  wide  at  the  base. 

Now  comes  the  third  course  of  poles.  It  is  laid  on  the  second 
course  to  crisscross  it  and  is  spiked  in  place.  The  third  course 
poles  run  from  bank  to  bank,  as  do  the  poles  of  the  first  course, 
and  the  last  row  of  third  course  poles  on  the  downstream  side  is 
omitted.  This  is  for  the  purpose  of  giving  that  stair-step  effect 
to  the  apron  of  the  dam.  The  fourth  course  is  then  laid,  criss- 
crossing the  third  course  of  poles.  It,  of  course,  is  shorter  than 
the  preceding  second  course,  since  one  row  of  poles  has  been 
omitted  from  the  third  course.  The  process  of  laying  successive 
crisscrossing  poles  is  continued  until  the  crib  has  reached  the 


74  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

desired  height,  the  dam  becoming  narrower  toward  the  top  through 
the  omitting  of  one  row  of  poles  in  the  successive  across-stream 
courses  and  the  shortening  of  the  successive  up-and-down-stream 
poles,  to  give  the  stair-step  apron  of  the  dam. 

When  the  crib  is  finished  the  priming  plank  is  driven  at  toe 
and  heel,  if  the  dam  does  not  rest  on  rock,  the  crib  is  filled  with 
stones,  the  upper  face  and  the  apron  of  the  dam  are  sheeted  with 
planks.  Clay  is  dumped  onto  the  upper  face  of  the  dam,  or  is 
omitted,  leaving  the  dam  to  "silt  up"  and  become  more  water 
tight  through  the  water  depositing  sediment.  The  dam  is  finished. 

Where  a  dam  is  on  bedrock,  do  not  smooth  the  stone  evenly. 
If  the  rock  presents  a  somewhat  level  surface  it  is  better  to  make 
that  surface  rough  and  uneven.  If  the  surface  is  rough  with 
depressions,  ridges,  and  points  jutting  up,  so  much  the  better. 
This  uneven  condition  braces  the  dam  and  prevents  possible 
sliding.  This  holds  for  crib,  concrete,  and  masonry  dams. 

Dams  have  gone  out  because  they  slid  or  overturned.  And 
they  slid  or  overturned  because  they  were  not  built  right  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  the  water  and  their  own  weight.  Throughout  the 
world  there  are  here  and  there  huge  ruins,  where  kings  or  their 
underlings  built  failures  that  were  to  have  been  dams.  They 
piled  up  huge  mountains  of  great  blocks  of  perfectly  cut  stone, 
laid  with  the  precision  of  master  workmen,  and  those  master 
workmen  were  masters  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  too.  But  their 
dams  washed  out.  Those  master  workmen  could  build  monu- 
ments of  stone  in  temple  and  palace  to  shame  the  builders  of  even 
today,  but  they  could  not  build  dams.  The  two  or  three  essential 
principles  in  successful  dam  building  were  not  known  to  them. 
In  fact  scientific  dam  construction  was  very  little  developed  until 
the  French  government  took  up  the  subject  about  seventy-five 
years  ago.  America  and  the  whole  world  owes  much  to  the 
French,  for  it  was  French  engineers  who  took  the  first  big  impor- 
tant step  in  dam  building  and  it  was  a  Frenchman  who  first  He- 
veloped  the  turbine  water  wheel. 

One  reason  those  mountains  of  cut  stones  the  kings  set  up  as 
dams  didn't  succeed  was  because  they  were  cut  stone.  Neither 
cut  stone  nor  brick  should  be  used  in  dam  building.  In  masonry 
dams  rubble  should  be  used  so  that  the  stones  of  varying  sizes 
make  only  irregular  joints  between  the  stones.  Another  reason 


DAMS 


75 


the  kings  didn't  succeed  was  that  their  dams  were  too  heavy. 
They  crushed  themselves.  If  they  didn't  crush  themselves  of 
their  own  weight,  the  added  pressure  of  the  water  against  them 
caused  them  to  overturn  or  to  collapse. 

It  isn't  a  matter  of  piling  great  quantities  of  material  in  a 
stream  to  dam  it.  It's  largely  a  question  of  proportioning  the 
dam.  The  pressure  of  the  water  against  the  face  of  the  dam 
always  exerts  its  force  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  dam. 


WATER  EXERTS  PRESSURE  PERPENDICULARLY  AGAINST  THE  FACE  OF  THE 

DAM.     THE  DOTTED  A  SHOWS  How  THE  PRESSURE  COMES  AGAINST  A  DAM 

WITH  A  VERTICAL  FACE.     THE  DOTTED    LINE    B    SHOWS    How   PRESSURE 

COMES  AGAINST  A  DAM  WITH  A  SLANTING  FACE. 

Thus  if  the  dam  face  is  vertical  the  pressure  will  be  exerted  along  a 
horizontal  line,  A,  as  shown  in  the  small  drawing  on  left  side  of  this 
page.  If  the  face  of  the  dam  is  slanting,  as  in  the  drawing  shown 
on  right  side  of  this  page,  the-  water  pressure  is  exerted  perpen- 
dicularly to  that  face,  or  along  the  line  B,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
Obviously,  if  the  dam  with  the  vertical  face  is  not  built  right  the 
water  is  going  to  slide  that  dam  down  stream.  Also,  if  the  dam 
with  the  slanting  face  isn't  built  right  the  water  is  going  to  crush 
it  or  overturn  it.  For  we  must  remember  that  in  addition  to  the 
pressure  of  the  water  the  dam  must  bear  its  own  weight  and  the 
weight  of  the  water  flowing  over  it,  and  that  somewhere  along  a 
line  at  the  base  of  the  dam  these  two  great  forces,  pressure  and 
weight,  are  going  to  converge  in  maximum  lines  of  force.  En- 
gineers know  the  limits  in  which  the  resultant  of  the  pressure  and 
the  weight  forces  will  converge  and  they  design  dams  to  counteract 
this  combination.  That  is  why  one  dam  with  twice  the  material 
in  it  that  another  dam  has,  will  not  hold,  while  the  lighter,  small 
dam  will  hold. 

Small  masonry  dams  or  concrete  dams  built  without  technical 
advice  in  small  streams  usually  hold.     The  pressure  is  not  sufficient 


7O          POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

to  harm  them.  But  where  the  dam  is  of  fair  size,  if  of  masonry 
or  concrete,  it  should  be  designed  by  a  dam  expert.  As  these  dams 
most  usually  require  considerably  less  material  in  their  construc- 
tion than  do  the  home-design  dams,  the  buying  of  dam  blue  prints 
and  specifications  most  often  is  a  big  saving.  Not  only  is  material 
and  labor  saved,  but  there  is  the  comforting  knowledge  that  the 
dam  will  last  through  generation  after  generation. 


The  picture  on  this  page  is  a  typical  masonry  dam  for  a  small 
stream.  Its  base  is  1.25  feet  for  each  one  foot  in  height.  It  is  of 
uncut  stones,  laid  in  Portland  cement  mortar. 

Where  the  banks  of  the  stream  are  solid  rock,  as  in  some  of 
the  notable  dams  in  the  great  reclamation  projects  in  the  West  and 
Southwest,  the  dam  may  be  an  arched  dam,  either  of  masonry  or 
concrete.  The  dams  we  have  been  considering,  up  to  this  point, 
have  been  gravity  dams,  which  are  the  general  type  of  dam,  the 
arch  dams  being  used  only  in  the  greatest  engineering  works  of 
reclamation,  and  where  there  is  a  natural,  solid  wall  of  bedrock  on 
each  side  of  the  stream  to  take  the  thrust  of  the  arch. 

Since  some  of  the  readers  of  this  book  may  have  available  a 
small  stream  flowing  through  a  rocky  gorge,  arch  dams  are  men- 
tioned briefly  here,  although  they  should  never  be  attempted 
unless  designed  by  a  competent  engineer  and,  if  feasible,  super- 
vised in  construction  by  such  authority. 

An  arch  dam  starts  at  the  natural,  solid  rock  wall  on  one  side 
of  the  stream,  curves  gradually  upstream  to  the  center  of  the  gorge 
or  canyon  and  then  curves  downstream  to  the  opposite  wall.  It 
is  built  solidly  into  the  walls  on  either  side.  Remembering  how 


DAMS 


77 


the  arch  of  a  stone  bridge  resists  the  weight  put  upon  it,  it  is  easy 
to  appreciate  how  the  slender,  curved  dam  can  successfully  with- 
stand the  pressure  of  water  upon  it.  At  its  base  it  usually  has  a 


heel  extending  out  a  short  distance,  but  throughout  its  whole 
makeup  it  is  such  a  comparatively  slender  thing  that  were  it  built 
straight  across  the  channel,  instead  of  being  curved  it  would 
collapse  very  quickly.  Arch  dams  are  used  where  great  height  is 


POWER   DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


WIAJGWALL 


RODS  01? 
PIPE.  FOR 


X  WIAIC5  \VALL 


OR 
APRO/V  WALL 


I          I 


BACKI^C 


TOp 


JPILL  WAY 


PiA/M 


SECTION 


DAMS 


79 


desired,  as  in  irrigation  projects  that  impound  great  lakes  of  water. 
Being  curved,  it  reacts  to  the  contraction  and  expansion  as  tem- 
peratures vary  and  does  not  crack.  Sometimes  the  lower  faces 
of  these  high  dams,  exposed  to  the  full  glare  of  the  sun,  are  quite  a 
few  degrees  warmer  than  the  upper  faces,  covered  by  cool  water. 
Arched  and  gravity  dams  sometimes  are  of  masonry,  but 
concrete  is  so  much  more  easily  handled  and  commonly  is  so  much 
cheaper  that  the  best  permanent  dams  of  today  are  largely  of 
concrete.  On  pages  77  and  78  we  give  a  complete  design  for  a  con- 


'XlO'or 
heavier 


SHEET  PILING  is  MERELY  PRIMING  PLANK  IN  MULTIPLE  FORM.  IN  THIS  USE 
2  x  10  INCH  BOARDS  ARE  CHEAPER  THAN  2  x  6s,  AS  THERE  SHOULD  BE  A 
CERTAIN  NUMBER  OF  BOLTS  TO  EACH  BOARD  TO  HOLD  THE  PILING  TOGETHER 

crete  dam  eight  feet  high,  ten  feet  wide  at  the  base  and  fifteen  inches 
wide  at  the  crest.  This  dam  is  made  of  a  mixture  of  I  part  best 
Portland  cement,  2  parts  sand,  and  4  parts  gravel,  or  coarse  aggre- 
gate. Large  stone  may  be  used  in  this  work,  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  they  are  clean  and  are  entirely  surrounded  by  the 
finer  materials  of  the  concrete.  This  dam  is  not  to  be  used  where 
the  length  of  the  dam  must  be  more  than  fifty  feet.  It  was  de- 
signed for  the  Alpha  Portland  Cement  Company  of  Easton, 
Pennsylvania.  You  will  notice  in  Figure  I  of  this  dam  design  on 
page  77  that  the  downstream  side  of  the  dam  is  curved,  which  is 
for  the  purpose  of  throwing  the  escaping  water  outward  and  up- 
ward from  the  dam  and  preventing  it  from  digging  too  great  a  hole 


8O  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

at  the  heel  of  the  dam.  This  design  is  complete,  except  that 
priming  plank  are  omitted.  If  the  dam  is  not  to  be  on  rock,  then 
this  priming  plank  should  be  used  and  in  place  of  a  single  thickness 
of  priming  plank,  three  thicknesses  are  preferable,  being  placed  as 
Wakefield  Sheet  Piling  with  a  waling  strip  on  the  outer  side  or  on 
both  sides.  Two-by-sixes  again  are  excellent  for  this  use.  The 
picture  on  page  79  shows  such  an  arrangement  of  priming  plank. 


Note  that  the  planks  overlap  so  that  joints  do  not  come  at  any  one 
place  full  through  the  thickness  of  the  priming.  In  using  such  an 
arrangement  of  priming  plank,  it  may  be  necessary  to  rig  up  a 
homemade  pile  driver.  A  log  a  foot  or  so  in  diameter  and  five  or 
six  feet  long,  fastened  to  a  rope  at  one  end  will  serve  well.  The 
picture  on  this  page  shows  such  a  homemade  pile  driver. 

A  concrete  or  masonry  dam  more  than  12  feet  high  should  not 
be  attempted  without  the  advice  of  a  competent  engineer  on  the 
subject,  first  on  the  design  and  type  of  dam,  and  second  on  .the 
footing  the  dam  site  offers.  Now  the  stream  bed  may  be  of  solid 
rock  and  may  appear  to  any  layman  as  absolutely  safe  to  hold  a 
dam.  But,  if,  as  it  occasionally  happens,  this  bedrock  is  porous, 
that  little  fact  may  threaten  the  stability  of  the  dam  with  an  un- 
expected force,  the  force  of  the  water  coming  up  underneath  the 
dam  through  the  pores  of  the  rock.  That  condition  undoubtedly 
would  occur  very,  very  rarely,  almost  never  in  fact,  but  we  must 


DAMS  8 1 

take  into  account  all  possibilities.  We  want  our  great-great- 
grandchildren to  admire  our  dam  and  not  to  remark  how  careless 
great-great-grandfather  was  not  to  recognize  the  little  fact  about 
building  solid  dams  on  porous  stone. 

Further,  if  we  put  the  solid  dam  on  other  than  solid  rock, 
there  should  be  competent  engineering  authority  as  to  whether 
that  footing  is  sound  enough.  A  soil-bearing  test  is  a  very  wise 
precaution.  It  is  a  simple  thing,  sometimes  made  by  digging  a 
tiny  hole  into  the  area  to  be  tested,  setting  a  12  x  12  timber  in  that 
hole  and  piling  weights  of  iron  or  sand  bags  on  a  small  platform  on 
the  upper  end  of  the  timber.  In  publishing  this  book  we  could 
easily  have  made  the  outlook  of  water  power  development  so 
scarce  of  obstacles  that  it  would  seem  a  rose-garlanded  pastime. 
The  little  chores  and  details  such  as  priming  plank,  porous  rock, 
soil-bearing  tests,  dumping  in  clay  to  "silt  up"  the  dam  could  have 
been  omitted  and  in  999  of  a  thousand  dams  their  absence  would 
not  have  been  missed,  but  we  feel  that  the  interests  of  the  thou- 
sandth developer  of  small  stream  water  power  should  be  con- 
sidered always  just  as  fully  and  particularly  as  those  of  the  999 
water  power  users.  The  Rodney  Hunt  Machine  Company  has 
been  making  water  wheels  and  devices  for  handling  water  for 
about  fifty  years.  It  hopes  to  continue  improving  and  developing 
water  power  plants  another  fifty  years.  It  can  do  so  only  by 
being  wholly  fair,  by  not  only  making  good  water  wheels,  pumps 
and  other  water  machinery,  but  by  making  this  book  just  as  good. 

While  concrete  dams  often  are  the  cheapest  construction 
feasible,  in  some  cases  rock  fill  dams  are  the  cheapest.  The 
picture  on  page  82  shows  a  cross  section  of  a  rock  fill  dam.  The 
rock  fill  dam  is  very  similar  to  the  earth  dam,  being  a  huge  ridge  of 
rock.  It  may  be  placed  on  porous  rock  or  on  practically  any  foot- 
ing. The  dam  shown  in  the  picture  on  page  82  has  one  foot  in 
height  for  each  one  foot  of  width  on  the  upstream  side  and  one  foot 
in  height  to  each  one  foot  in  width  on  the  downstream  side.  The 
upstream  side  of  the  dam  is  faced  with  rough  rubble,  set  in  cement 
mortar  and  a  foot  to  two  feet  thick.  This  face  of  the  dam  is  then 
covered  with  four  to  six  inches  of  very  rich  concrete,  the  aggregate 
of  the  concrete  being  fine.  The  downstream  face  of  the  dam 
should  be  a  dry  wall  about  two  feet  thick.  All  the  rest  of  the  dam 
is  of  loose  rock,  just  dumped  in.  The  dam  should  have  a  spillway, 


82 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


/Slope  of 


iqtf&f/f> 

Bed  Hock 

IN  THIS  PICTURE  THE  FACE  OF  THE  DAM  is  STRENGTHENED  BY  THE  ADDITION 

OF  THE  DRY  WALL  BEHIND  THE  WALL  LAID  IN  MORTAR.     THIS  DRY  WALL 

MAY  BE  OMITTED,  BUT  AS  ITS  COST  is  ONLY  A  LITTLE  EXTRA  LABOR  IT  is 

GOOD  PRACTICE  TO  INCLUDE  IT 

as  in  the  earth  dam,  adequately  lined  with  concrete  or  boards.  If 
there  is  to  be  a  small  flow  of  water  over  the  dam,  then  the  crest 
and  the  downstream  face  must  be  sheeted  with  concrete  or  boards. 
Priming  plank  should  be  driven  at  the  toe  of  the  dam,  if  it  is  not  on 
bedrock.  The  view  shown  below  shows  similar  construction 
with  center  corewall  a  little  more  expensive  but  much  more 
desirable  form. 


'^Concrete   Core.  Wall 


teel  Reinforcing 


BeJ  Rock 
Trench  Filled  w/M  Concreie 


ROCK  FILL  DAM   WITH   CONCRETE    CORE   WALL 


DAMS 


We  have  come  now  to  the  last  type  of  dam  we  are  to  consider, 
the  frame  dam.  It  may  be  of  wood,  concrete,  or  steel,  or  a  combina- 
tion of  materials.  The  drawing  on  this  page  is  of  a  section  of 
wooden  frame  dam.  It  shows  a  frame  of  heavy  timbers  supporting 
the  face  of  the  dam.  The  base  timbers  A  in  this  dam  are  called 


sills.  The  shorter  timbers  marked  B  are  struts.  The  timbers 
marked  C  are  rafters  and  the  long  timbers  marked  D  are  purlins. 
This  design  of  dam  as  shown  here  may  be  built  any  length.  As  to 
height  of  dam,  we  give  here  dimensions  for  timbers  for  wooden 
frame  dams  of  three  different  heights,  four  feet  high,  six  feet  high, 
and  eight  feet  high.  For  a  dam  four  feet  high  the  sills  should  be 
6  x  8-inch  timbers  ten  feet  long,  the  rafters  should  be  6  x  y-inch 
timbers  eight  feet  long  and  the  struts  A  should  be  6  x  6-inch  tim- 
bers five  feet  long.  For  a  dam  six  feet  high  the  sills  should  be 
6  x  8-inch  timbers  fourteen  feet  long,  the  rafters  should  be  6  x  8- 
inch  timbers  twelve  feet  long  and  the  struts  A  should  be  6  x  6-inch 
timbers  seven  feet  long.  For  a  dam  eight  feet  high  the  sills 
should  be  6  x  8-inch  timbers  eighteen  feet  long,  the  rafters  should 
be  6  x  8-inch  timbers  sixteen  feet  long  and  the  struts  A  should  be 
6  x  6-inch  timbers  nine  feet  long.  The  sills  should  be  no  farther 
than  six  feet  apart  and  the  purlins  no  farther  than  four  feet  apart. 
The  sills  may  be  bolted  fast  to  bedrock  or  to  timbers  running 
across  the  stream  parallel  to  the  purlins.  The  plank  used  for  the 
facing  should  be  at  least  two  inches  thick. 

In  any  dam  the  end  of  the  dam  may  be  the  weakest  point  in 
construction,  for  the  water  will  try  sometimes  to  eat  around  the 
ends  of  the  dam  by  washing  out  the  banks  of  the  stream.  For  this 
reason  the  dam  must  be  built  well  into  the  banks  to  prevent  the 


84  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

banks  washing  out,  which  is  easily  guarded  against  by  reinforcing 
the  face  of  the  bank  with  a  few  loose  stones  or  by  driving  in  plank. 

"But  if  I  put  in  a  dam  it  would  back  the  water  up  fifty  feet," 
some  one  remarks.  "Would  a  dam,  as  described  here,  hold  it?" 

Certainly  it  would  hold  the  water.  It  doesn't  make  any 
difference  if  you  build  a  dam  and  back  the  water  up  ten  miles  or 
twenty  miles,  the  same  dam  will  hold  it.  Whether  the  pond  or 
lake  made  by  the  dam  is  twenty  miles  long  or  any  number  of  miles 
long  makes  no  more  difference  than  if  the  dam  backs  up  only  ten 
or  twenty  feet  of  water. 

It  is  always  well  before  building  a  dam  to  have  the  approval 
of  local  authorities,  and  before  going  ahead  with  larger  dams  it 
is  best  to  consult  an  engineer. 


CONDUITS  85 


CHAPTER  X 

CONDUITS 

THE  owner  or  owners  of  small  water  power  plants  for  home, 
town  or  village  betterment  have  a  distinct  advantage  over 
the  big,  moneyed  corporation  that  installs  a  great  water  power 
plant.  The  small  plant  can  be  arranged  pretty  much  to  suit  the 
convenience  of  the  owner,  both  in  its  method  of  construction  and 
its  location  to  natural  surroundings.  With  the  small  plant  the 
difference  in  cost  between  the  ideal  arrangement,  recommended  by 
a  water  power  expert,  and  the  possibly  more  convenient  arrange- 
ment, decided  on  by  the  owner,  is  quite  small  both  as  to  cost  and 
the  resulting  efficiency. 

But  huge  plants  must  follow  somewhat  rigid  rules,  whether 
convenient  or  not.  The  great  volume  of  water  they  use  is  a 
colossal  giant  whose  tremendous  strength  requires  heavy  har- 
ness. Consequently  the  big  plants  find  it  most  advantageous  to 
employ  large  water  wheels  under  low  heads  of  water,  installing  the 
wheels  close  up  to  the  dam  and  eliminating  long  lengths  of  flume  or 
penstock.  ("Penstock"  is  only  another  word  for  "pipe.")  On 
.the  other  hand,  the  small  plant  can  choose  the  more  desirable 
arrangement  of  using  a  larger  wheel  under  a  low  head  close  up  to 
the  dam.  Or,  it  can  use  a  smaller  wheel  situated  some  hundreds 
or  thousands  of  feet  from  the  dam,  obtaining  a  higher  head  of 
water  by  carrying  the  water  to  the  wheel  in  some  form  of  conduit, 
flume,  ditch  or  penstock.  The  smaller  water  giant  employed  by 
the  small  plant  is  so  easily  handled,  the  small  water  power  plant 
owner  can  choose  between  the  two  arrangements  without  much 
difference  in  cost  or  efficiency. 

However,  it  is  an  almost  universal  rule  that  placing  larger 
wheels  close  to  the  dam,  thereby  utilizing  a  lower  head  of  water  and 
eliminating  penstock  and  flume  lengths  as  much  as  possible  is  the 
better  arrangement.  This  statement  is  made  in  the  face  of  the 
fact  that  the  Rodney  Hunt  Machine  Company  has  a  complete  line 


86  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

of  wood  and  steel  plate  penstocks  to  sell,  to  meet  any  condition  of 
water  power  development.  The  more  of  such  materials  it  sells  the 
better  its  business.  Yet  in  sticking  close  to  the  purpose  of  this 
book,  to  give  a  truthful  word  picture  of  water  power  development, 
we  advise  against  using  long  lengths  of  penstocks  or  flumes  where 
it  is  at  all  practical  to  use  a  lower  head  of  water  and  only  a  short 
length  of  penstock. 

But  some  investigator  into  home  or  town  water  possibilities 
may  say: 

"The  banks  of  our  creek  or  brook  are  low.  If  we  build  a 
moderately  high  dam  it  is  likely  to  cause  overflows  in  flood  times. 
Besides  there  is  a  week  or  two  some  years  when  the  stream  gets  so 
low  it  might  not  have  enough  water  to  operate  the  larger  wheel  at 
full  power.  Besides,  if  we  build  a  small  dam  it  costs  less  than  the 
larger  dam  and  at  the  same  time  does  not  create  a  possible  flood 
hazard.  Now  why  can't  we  carry  this  water  through  a  mill  race 
or  something  to  get  a  higher  head  of  water?  We  can  use  a  smaller 
wheel  then,  and  as  the  smaller  wheel  takes  less  water  the  stream 
will  always  have  enough  water  to  run  the  wheel  at  full  power. 
We'd  get  the  same  power  from  a  small  wheel  and  a  little  water 
under  a  high  head  that  we  would  from  a  larger  wheel  under  a  lower 
head.  What's  wrong  with  using  a  mill  race?" 

Obviously  there's  nothing  wrong  with  carrying  the  water  a 
considerable  distance  through  a  conduit  to  the  wheel,  under 
such  conditions.  It  is  the  best  thing  to  do.  The  question 
comes  down  entirely  to  a  choice  of  conduits,  "conduit"  being  a 
general  term  in  this  case  for  pipes,  penstocks,  flumes,  ditches  and 
millraces.  On  page  87  is  a  picture  of  a  wood  stave  penstock  or 
pipe.  It  is\>ne  of  the  most  satisfactory  conduits  yet  devised. 
Its  construction  is  just  like  that  of  a  barrel,  wooden  staves  held 
in  place  by  iron  bands,  only  the  wood  stave  pipe  has  no  bulge  as 
has  the  barrel.  Many  advocates  of  wood  stave  pipe  assert  fhat 
it  not  only  has  greater  durability  and  tightness,  but  that  wood 
stave  pipe  or  penstock  will  carry  10  per  cent  more  water  than 
either  riveted  or  cast  iron  pipe.  Wood  stave  pipe  is  practical  for 
use  under  pressures  up  to  170  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  or  work- 
ing under  heads  of  water  about  390  feet  high.  Under  high  pres- 
sures the  staves  are  made  thicker  and  the  banding  irons  are 


CONDUITS  87 

heavier      and     are 
placed     closer    to- 
gether. Under  mod- 
erate pressures  the 
staves  are  thinner, 
the    banding    irons 
.lighter  and   placed 
farther  apart.  Thus, 
if    you     bought     a 
wood     stave     pen- 
stock   for    use    un- 
der a  moderate  head  of  water,  it  would  be  built  to  suit  that  head 
of  water  and  would  not  cost  as  much  as  the  same  diameter  of 
pipe  built  for  higher  heads.      The  pipe  is  made  of  different  kinds 
of  wood  to  meet  varying  conditions  and  can  be  fitted  with  elbow 
or  angle  sections  to  permit  the  pipe  to  be  curved  in  any  direc- 
tion  that   may  be  convenient  or  necessary.     Added  to  its  dura- 
bility,  lightness    and   ease   of   installation    are    two   other  prime 
qualities,  cheapness,  and  capability  of  being  repaired  easily  after 
long  service.     In    addition    to    straight  wood   pipe   the    Rodney 
Hunt   Machine   Company   furnishes    curved   wood  pipe,    hoops, 
bands,  lugs,  connectors  for  joining  with  steel   pipe,   cradle   sup- 
ports and  all  accessories  and  fittings. 

In  some  uses  riveted  steel  plate  penstocks  are  the  best  form  of 
construction  possible.  The  picture  on  page  88  shows  a  type  of 
such  construction.  As  with  wood  stave  pipe,the  steel  plate  pipe 
is  made  in  different  sizes  and  with  plates  of  different  thickness  to 
work  under  different  conditions  and  heads  at  the  cheapest  practical 
cost  of  installation.  Connectors,  reducers,  and  special  shapes  are 
also  furnished  when  desired.  In  the  earlier  years  of  the  Rodney 
Hunt  business  timber  was  universally  used  in  the  construction  of 
water  wheel  flumes,  pipes,  and  penstocks,  and  wheelwrights  and 
carpenters  were  then  an  important  part  of  our  force.  The  lessen- 
ing cost  of  steel  has  made  possible  the  use  of  metal  in  many  places 
where  it  may  be  more  desirable  than  wood,  and  in  1897  we  added  to 
our  works  a  plate  and  structural  steel  department  which  has 
grown  rapidly  and  which  is  equipped  with  the  best  design  of  tools 
for  accurate  and  careful  work  and  for  economic  production  of  first 
class  materials. 


88  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


A  circular  conduit,  either  a  wood  or  steel  pipe,  is  the  best  form 
of  conduit  possible,  because  there  is  less  wall  space  compared  to  the 
volume  of  water  carried  than  in  any  other  form  of  conduit.  This 
minimum  of  wall  space  means  a  reduction  in  friction,  and  that 
more  water  can  pass  through  the  conduit  in  a  given  time  than  if 
the  pipe  were  some  other  shape.  A  square  penstock  of  the  same 
cross  section  of  a  round  pipe  would  not  carry  as  much  water  as 
would  the  round  pipe.  Friction  is  a  more  important  consideration 
than  would  seem  possible  perhaps  to  the  man  or  woman  unac- 
quainted with  the  subject,  and  m  the  chapter  in  this  book  on  centri- 
fugal pumps  we  have  emphasized,  with  the  experiences  of  a 
Missouri  farmer,  the  importance  of  considering  friction  in  instal- 
ling conduits.  The  Missouri  farmer  had  to  buy  an  extra  size  motor 
for  his  drainage  plant  solely  because  he  neglected  this  item  and  put 
in- a  4-inch  discharge  pipe  instead  of  a  5-inch  pipe.  On  page  163 
you  will  find  a  pipe  friction  table  showing  how  water  is  retarded  at 
different  velocities  in  different  sizes  of  pipe  through  the  friction  of 
water  against  the  pipe. 

Friction  in  a  flume  or  ditch  demands  just  as  much  attention 
as  in  a  penstock.  As  in  a  pipe  we  have  seen  that  the  round  pen- 
stock has  the  least  friction,  so  the  flume  or  ditch  in  the  shape  of  a 
half  circle  will  have  less  friction  and  carry  more  water  than  in  any 
other  shape  of  equal  area.  In  small  conduits,  sometimes  used  in 
fish  hatcheries  to  carry  water  from  one  pond  to  another,  half^tile 
pipes  are  used  because  they  carry  more  water  for  the  space  they 
occupy  than  would  the  ordinary  trough-like  flume  with  straight 
sides.  However,  curved  sides  are  not  practical  in  flumes  or  ditches 
generally,  so  we  turn  to  the  next  best  shape  of  flume,  a  half  hexagon 
thus  \  /  with  the  outside  angle,  A,  between  a  side 

and     \  /\       the  bottom  being  60  degrees.     Again,  in 

exca-      N '-—- -*-^  vations  some  soils  will  not  hold  a  bank 


CONDUITS  89 

as  steep  as  this  60  degrees  indicates.  In  that  event  the  slant 
of  the  sides  must  be  less.  In  any  case  the  ditch  with  slanting, 
not  straight,  sides  will  pass  more  water  than  the  straight-side.d 
ditch  of  similar  cross-section  area.  Now  comes  the  question: 
Should  I  make  my  ditch  with  a  wide  bottom  and  gradually 
slanting  sides,  thus  Or,  shall  I  have  a 

narrow  bottom  and  N.  =^S  steeply   slanting    sides, 

thus  \ /  '          The  water  will  be  shal- 

low  and  have  a  broad  width  in' the  broad  bot- 

tom       N  j        flume.     It  will  be  deep  and  narrow  in  the 

narrower  bottom  flume  or  ditch.  The  answer  is  to  make  the 
bottom  as  narrow  and  the  sides  as  steep  as  possible  up  to  60 
degrees.  Or,  stating  a  rule,  next  to  a  half-hexagon  shape  the 
best  shape  is  one  that  with  the  depth  of  the  water  as  the  radius 
a  circle  drawn  within  the  flume  will  touch  the  bottom  and 
both  sides,  thus  \i  \i  The  Rodney  Hunt  Machine 

Company  will  be  pleased  to  advise  you  just  what 

shape    and    size  >"-»    a^y        ditch  to  put  in,  if  you  propose 

to  use  a  natural-bottom-and-sides  ditch  or  a  concrete-lined  ditch 
as  a  conduit.  This  important  principle  of  conduit  construction 
was  first  discovered  thousands  of  years  ago  by  the  world's  first 
scientific  builder,  the  honey  bee,  which  divides  its  comb  into 
hexagons  because  only  in  that  form  can  it  get  the  largest  storage 
space  for  honey  with  a  minimum  quantity  of  wax  for  wall 
construction. 

This  hexagonal  or  trapezoidal  cross  section  principle  in  flume 
construction  applies  almost  entirely  to  ditches.  It  would  be  im- 
practical and  too  expensive  to  build  wood  or  concrete  flumes  on 
top  of  the  ground  with  such  shapes.  The  thing  to  do  then  is  to 
build,  on  top  of  the  ground,  a  flume  with  a  straight,  level  bottom 
and  straight  sides,  a  rectangular  flume.  But  even  in  this  con- 
struction friction  can  be  eliminated  and  more  water  carried  by  a 
proper  relation  of  the  height  of  the  sides  to  the  bottom.  Thus, 
in  the  rectangular  flume  the  normal  depth  of  water  should  be  half 
the  width  of  the  flume.  Thus,  the  stream  in  a  flume  one  foot 
deep  should  be  two  feet  wide;  or,  if  the  water  is  three  feet  deep  the 
flume  should  be  six  feet  wide. 


9o 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 


The  picture  on  this  page  shows  a  concrete-lined  ditch  or  flume. 
While  it  is  desirable  to  line  such  ditches,  it  is  not  always  necessary. 
This  flume  could  be  smaller  if  the  slides  were  slanting,  as  explained 


CONCRETE  LINED  FLUME 
FROM  LA  HACIENDA,  BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 

in  foregoing  chapters,  but  there  probably  is  enough  water  available 
that  the  friction  element  was  not  given  thought  and  the  extra  cost 
of  using  more  concrete  to  build  a  rectangular  flume  was  not  con- 
sidered. The  unlined  ditch  in  a  greater  part  of  the  farming  areas 
of  the  Americas  will  hold  water  very  satisfactorily  after  it  has  had 
a  few  weeks  to  "silt  up."  Where  the  ditch  is  in  sandy  soil  and 
leaks  considerably,  put  several  inches  of  clay  in  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch,  wet  it  and  then  puddle  it  by  driving  horses  or  cattle  up  and 
down  the  ditch.  The  thickness  of  the  concrete  in  lining  such  a 
flume  depends  entirely  on  the  size  of  the  flume.  A  drawback  to 
unlined  ditches  is  that  in  warm  climates  the  ditches  gradually  fill 
up  with  vegetable  growth  that  greatly  obstructs  the  flow. 


CONDUITS  91 

On  this  page  is  the  picture  of  a  wooden  flume  in  course  of  con- 
struction. The  picture  on  page  93  is  a  covered  concrete  flume. 
On  pages  95-99  are  designs  for  wood  and  metal  flumes  made 


A  WOOD  FLUME  IN  COURSE  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

FROM    LA    HACIENDA,    BUFFALO,    N.    Y. 

by  the  United  States  Reclamation  Service,  with  tables  of  dimen- 
sions and  quantities  of  materials. 

The  home  owner,  town  or  village  official  who  has  a  water 
power  prospect  of  any  size  can  get  from  this  chapter  a  fair  idea  of 
the  conduit  his  particular  water  power  development  calls  for.  As 
a  general  thing  flumes  or  penstocks  are  more  satisfactory  than 
mill  races  or  ditches.  The  contour  of  the  land,  up-hill-and-down- 
hill,  may  make  a  ditch  impossible.  The  ground  may  be  too  stony 
for  economic  excavation.  Trees  may  interfere,  being  either  in  the 
direct  path  of  the  ditch  or  else  breaking  the  bottom  or  sides  of  the 
ditch  with  their  roots.  Further,  there  may  be  objection  to  dis- 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


DIAGRAM  OF  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  COVERED  WOOD  FLUME 

FROM    LA  HACIENDA,   BUFFALO,   N.  Y. 

figuring  a  good  bottom  land  field  and  breaking  it  up  with  a  ditch. 
In  this  case  a  flume  or  penstock  may  follow  along  the  edge  of  the 
bank  with  a  minimum  loss  of  arable  land. 


CONDUITS 


93 


COVERED  CONCRETE  FLUME 

FROM   LA  HACIENDA,    BUFFALO,   N.  Y. 

If  the  investigator  of  home,  town  or  village  water  power  plants 
will  write  to  the  Rodney  Hunt  Machine  Company,  Orange, 
Massachusetts,  giving  conditions  under  which  he  expects  to  de- 
velop water  power,  we  shall  be  glad  to  advise  him  fully  on  all  points 
of  construction,  including  type,  design,  approximate  costs,  and 
sizes  of  different  conduits  applicable  to  his  use.  We  retain  a  large 


94  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

staff  of  trained  men  whose  business  it  is  to  work  out  such  informa- 
tion. We  shall  be  glad  to  advise  fully  and  accurately  information 
on  all  points  touching  the  development  of  any  water  power  project. 
In  writing  for  such  information,  please  give  details  as  fully  as 
possible,  stating  the  power  that  is  expected  to  be  developed,  the 
fall  of  water  available,  flow  of  stream,  nature  of  stream  bed  and 
surroundings.  Different  sizes  and  arrangements  of  water  power 
plants  can  be  specified  very  accurately  and  to  conform  to  any 
pocketbook. 


CONDUITS 


95 


i 

iiffllli  in 


96 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


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NOTE 

Three  kinds  of  lumber  have  been  assumed,  classified   as  follows: 
Class  A:      Nominal  unit  stress     800 
Class  B:      Nominal  unit  stress  1000 
Class  C:      Nominal  unit  stress  1200 

Flume  lifting,  yokes  and  posts  have  been  considered  for  each  class  A. 
Stringers  have  been  considered  for  each  class. 
Caps  and  sills  have  been  considered  only  for  class  C. 

Quantities  in  table  are  for  one  flume  span   and  one  bent  and  include  no  allowance  tor 
culls,  waste,  etc.  .  , 

Anchor    bolts  shall  be  imbedded   in   concrete  piers  about   24  inches   and  provided   with 
washers  at  imbedded  end  and  plates  on  sills  as  follows: 

Dia.  Bolt  Dia.  Washer  Size  of  Plate 

K*  2"  **  x  4* 

r>»  \"  6"  x  6" 

{I  >  6"  x  7" 

Department  of  the  Interior  United  States  Reclamation  Servic 
Design  and  Compilation  by  Technical  Section 

F.  W.  Hanna,  Engineer  in  Charge 

STANDARD  WOODEN  FLUMES 

Dimensions  and  Quantities 

Flume  and  Trestle  Bents 

September  1907 


Accession  No.  9760 


Drawing  No.  2  of  3 


CONDUITS 


97 


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K;S;S 

98 


POWER   DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


DRAWING    Nft     '* 


CONDUITS 


99 


IOO  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


CHAPTER    XI 
HOME  USES  OF    CONCRETE 

THE  concrete  catechism  reads,  "One  part  best  Portland 
cement,  2  parts  clean,  coarse  sand,  4  parts  crushed  stone  or 
gravel,"  with  monotonous  regularity.  For  different  strengths 
and  uses  of  concrete  the  catechism  occasionally  changes  to  include 
three  other  proportions,  I  part  cement,  i}/2  parts  sand,  and  3  parts 
stone,  or  I  part  cement,  2^/2  parts  sand  and  5  parts  stone,  or  I  part 
cement,  3  parts  sand,  and  6  parts  stone.  Those  four  mixtures  are 
the  standardized  dependable  proportions  that  comprise  the  law  of 
general,  every-day  use  of  concrete.  That  law  -should  be  changed 
to  read: 

"Concrete  for  general  home  use  should  consist  of  I  part  best 
Portland  cement  and  such  proportions  of  sand  and  gravel  as  are 
cheapest  and  handiest  and  at  the  same  time  fit  into  the  purpose  for 
which  the  concrete  is  to  be  used." 

This  is  another  way  of  saying  that  the  man  who  makes  con- 
crete should  take  advantage  of  the  more  abundant  native  material 
he  has  at  hand  and  not  follow  blindly  the  catechism  of  concrete. 
If,  as  happens  very  frequently,  there  is  a  supply  of  native  gravel  to 
be  had  for  the  taking,  it  is  practical  to  increase  the  proportion  of 
stone  somewhat  and  cut  down  the  quantity  of  sand,  if  the  sand  has 
to  be  bought  and  hauled  from  a  distant  point  and  is,  therefore,  an 
expensive  part  of  the  job.  This  substituting  of  stone  for  a  small 
part  of  sand  may  effect  a  great  saving  in  dam,  road,  retaining  wall 
and  other  heavy  construction.  In  such  heavy  construction  very 
large  stones  may  be  used  successfully;  in  fact,  in  the  great  Ele- 
phant Butte  Dam  "plums"  weighing  several  tons  have  been  made 
a  part  of  the  concrete.*  This  chapter,  in  dealing  with  the  more 
general  uses  of  concrete  on  the  farm,  does  not  seek  to  give  specific 
directions  that  will  fit  every  case  where  saving  could  be  effected 
by  changing  from  the  old,  standard  mixtures.  That  would  be 
impossible.  But  a  careful  reading  of  this  chapter  should  indicate 


HOME    USES    OF-  CONCRETE  IO1 

pretty  clearly  how  such  general  principle  in  saving  may  be  applied 
in  particular  instances. 

Concrete  is  artificial  stone,  made  by  binding  or  cementing  fast 
together  sand  and  stone.  The  principle  of  its  formation  is  that 
any  box  or  measure  filled  with  gravel  or  crushed  stone  will  contain 
comparatively  large  air  spaces.  Sand  then  is  added  to  fill  up  these 
air  spaces,  and  though  enough  sand  and  stone  are  packed  into  the 
box  to  appear  to  fill  it  solid,  there  still  is  a  multitude  of  small  air 
spaces  in  the  mixture  of  sand  and  stone.  The  purpose  of  the 
cement  is  to  fill  all  these  small  air  spaces  and  at  the  same  time  to 
bind  sand  and  stone  together  in  a  solid  mass.  In  speaking  of 
these  three  materials  used  in  concrete  making,  the  sand  usually  is 
called  the  fine  aggregate  and  the  stone  or  gravel  is  called  the  coarse 
aggregate. 

Good  sand  for  concrete  should  consist  of  hard,  durable  grains 
ranging  from  1-3 2nd  of  an  inch  in  diameter  for  the  smallest  and 
}/±  of  an  inch  in  diameter  for  the  largest.  The  sand  should  be 
evenly  graded  from  the  smallest  to  the  largest  grains,  so  that  the 
smaller  grains  fill  in  the  voids  between  the  larger  grains.  The  finer 
the  sand  the  weaker  the  concrete  and  the  more  cement  required. 
While  as  much  as  5  per  cent  of  the  concrete  may  be  finely  divided 
clay,  without  injuring  the  concrete,  the  sand  must  be  free  of  all 
dirt,  loam,  humus  or  other  vegetable  matter.  Sand  should  look 
clean  to  be  clean.  If  it  has  a  dead  appearance  it  is  dirty  and  should 
not  be  used  without  washing.  When  dry,  clean  sand  will  not 
lump.  If  lumps  appear  when  the  sand  is  dry  they  are  caused  by 
the  grains  being  "cemented"  together  with  dirt.  Pick  up  a  hand- 
ful of  moist  (not  dry)  sand  and  work  the  fingers  of  that  hand  over 
it  several  times  as  it  is  squeezed  in  the  palm.  If  the  fingers  or 
palm  are  stained  or  dirty  the  sand  is  unfit  for  use  until  washed. 
To  wash  the  sand,  use  a  screen  of  thirty  meshes  to  the  inch,  fasten- 
ing the  screen  to  the  underside  of  a  wooden  frame  and  preventing 
the  screen  from  sagging  or  breaking  by  nailing  cleats  across  the 
bottom  of  the  frame.  Elevate  one  end  of  the  screen  until  the 
screen  is  at  an  angle  of  about  30  degrees.  The  sand  is  shoveled 
onto  the  upper  end  of  the  screen  and  is  gradually  washed  down  to 
the  lower  end  of  the  screen  by  water  being  sluiced  over  it  with  a 
hose  or  buckets.  A  screen  six  feet  or  longer  should  be  used. 


IO2  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

The  coarse  aggregate  consists  of  particles  of  hard,  clean  stone 
J4  of  an  inch  diameter,  as  the  smallest,  up  to  the  huge  "plums" 
weighing  tons  and  used  in  mass  construction.  As  a  general  thing, 
however,  the  coarse  aggregate  does  not  run  more  than  2^  inches 
in  diameter.  Above  that  size  care  must  be  taken  to  tamp  the 
concrete  extra  well  so  that  there  are  no  voids,  which  are  more 
likely  where  large  particles  of  coarse  aggregate  are  used.  In  re- 
inforced concrete  work  coarse  aggregate  larger  than  I  inch  in  dia- 
meter should  not  be  used.  The  reason  is  that  larger  stones  are 
likely  to  make  voids  along  the  reinforcing  steel  and  thus  prevent 
the  finer  materials  from  binding  the  reinforcing  and  the  concrete 
in  a  solid  mass.  The  coarse  aggregate,  too,  should  be  evenly 
graded  from  the  finest  to  the  coarsest,  so  that  the  finer  particles 
of  stone  fit  in  among  the  larger  stones,  just  as  the  finer  sand  acts 
to  fill  spaces  between  the  larger  grains  of  sand.  The  coarse  aggre- 
gate should  be  any  hard  stone,  such  as  granite,  flint,  hard  lime- 
stone. Sandstone  is  not  so  good.  Usually  it  is  too  soft,  although 
it  sometimes  is  used  in  important  work,  as  in  locks  recently  built 
on  the  Ohio  River.  The  coarse  aggregate  must  be  clean  and  free 
from  dirt.  If  dirty  it  should  be  washed  over  a  J^-inch  screen,  as 
the  sand  was  washed. 

The  water  used  in  concrete  making  should  be  good,  clean 
water,  free  of  strong  alkalis.  Sea  water  should  not  be  used. 

The  standard  mixture  of  concrete  for  general  purposes  is 
1-2-4;  that  is,  I  part  cement,  2  parts  sand,  and  4  parts  stone.  This 
mixture  is  suitable  for  the  best  wall  construction,  for  dams, 
columns,  fence  posts,  tanks,  silos,  conduits,  arches,  cisterns,  and 
practically  all  work  requiring  especially  strong  concrete.  To 
waterproof  cisterns,  dams,  walls,  and  tanks,  5  to  10  per  cent  of 
hydrated  slaked  lime  may  be  added  to  the  concrete;  that  is,  the 
quantity  of  lime  may  be  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  quantity  of:the 
cement.  To  illustrate,  a  batch  of  concrete  calls,  we'll  say,  for  two 
bags  of  cement.  Cement  weighs  ninety-four  pounds  net  to  the 
bag.  We'll  take  out  about  fifteen  pounds  of  cement  and  substitute 
fifteen  pounds  of  lime.  This,  however,  must  be  remembered  as 
the  only  instance  in  which  we  will  measure  by  weight.  All  other 
measurements  herein  in  making  concrete  are  by  volume.  To  use 
more  than  10  per  cent  lime,  as  directed  here,  will  weaken  the  con- 


HOME    USES    OF    CONCRETE  IO3 

crete.  In  waterproofing,  the  presence  of  the  lime  in  the  concrete 
reacts  to  the  carbonates  that  are  in  most  waters  and  causes  de- 
posits of  them  to  fill  up  the  minute  pores  of  the  concrete.  Never 
use  quick  lime  in  connection  with  concrete.  It  must  be  thoroughly 
slaked. 

Where  columns  require  a  particularly  strong  structure  the 
concrete  may  be  1-1/^-3  in  proportions.  Foundations,  cellar 
walls,  sidewalks,  cellar  and  barn  floors  are  often  of  1-2^-5  mixture. 
Dams,  too,  sometimes  are  found  to  be  entirely  adequate  when 
made  of  this  mixture.  Piers  for  supporting  buildings  such  as 
corn  cribs,  barns,  shops,  water  wheels,  and  the  like  may  be  of  a 
lean  mixture  1-3-6. 

For  maximum  strength  of  concrete  only  enough  water  should 
be  used  to  wet  up  the  cement  chemically,  which  will  give  the  fresh 
mass  of  concrete  a  plastic,  slightly  quaking  consistency.  The 
addition  of  more  water  reduces  the  strength  of  the  concrete,  just 
as  surely  as  would  taking  away  some  of  the  cement.  However,  to 
facilitate  handling  of  concrete  it  often  is  wet  sufficiently  to  make 
it  flow  sluggishly,  thus  sacrificing  a  bit  of  the  strength  that  43-  not 
essential  usually  to  the  success  of  the  work.  Sloppy  mixtures, 
though,  should  never  be  used.  Be  as  sparing  as  possible  with 
water.  Concrete  failure  very  often  is  because  of  too  much  water. 
Fluidity  of  mixture  should  be  obtained  by  thorough  mixing,  for 
good  mixing  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  process. 

"In  this  description,  and  the  accompanying  illustrations,  we 
have  taken  as  a  basis  a  'half-barrel  batch'  of  1-2-4  concrete. 

"First  load  your  sand  in  wheelbarrows  from  the  sand  pile? 
wheel  it  onto  the  'board,'  and  fill  the  sand  measuring  box,  which  is 
placed  about  60  cm  (approximately  2  feet)  from  one  side  of  the 
board,  as  shown  by  the  diagram  in  Fig.  I.  When  the  measuring  box 
is  filled,  lift  it  off  and  spread  the  sand  over  the  board  in  a  layer  8 
or  10  cm.  (about  3  cr  4  inches)  thick,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Take  the 
two  bags  or  half-barrel  of  cement  ancf  place  the  contents  as  evenly 
as  possible  over  the  sand  (see  Fig.  2).  With  the  two  men  at  the 
points  marked  "x"  and  "xx"  on  the  sketch  below  Fig.  2,  start 
mixing  the  sand  and  cement,  each  man  turning  over  the  half  on  his 
side  of  the  line  ZZ.  Starting  at  his  feet  and  shoveling  away  from 
him,  each  man  takes  a  full  shovelload,  turning  the  shovel  over 


io4 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


at  the  points  marked  I  and  2  respectively  in  Fig.  2.  In  turning 
the  shovel,  do  not  simply  dump  the  sand  and  cement  at  the  points 
marked  I  and  2  in  the  diagram  under  the  cut,  but  shake  the 
materials  oft  the  end  and  sides  of  the  shovel,  so  that  the  sand  and 


A    Sand.     B    Stone.     C    Walks.     D    Barrel  for  water.     E    Cement. 
FIG.  i.    LIFTING  THE  CASE  TO  MEASURE  THE  SANDTO  Mix  THE  CEMENT 

cement  are  mixed  as  they  fall.  This  is  a  great  assistance  in  mixing 
these  materials.  In  this  way  the  material  is  shoveled  from  one 
side  of  the  board  to  the  other,  as  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4.  Figure 
3  shows  the  first  turning,  and  Fig.  4  the  second  turning. 

"The  sand  and  cement  should  now  be  well  mixed  and  r4ady 
for  the  sand  and  water.  After  the  last  turning,  spread  the  sand 
and  cement  out  carefully,  place  the  gravel  or  stone  measuring  box 
beside  it  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  and  fill  from  the  gravel  pile.  Lift  off 
the  box  and  shovel  the  gravel  on  top  of  the  sand  and  cement, 
spreading  it  as  evenly  as  possible.  With  some  experience  equally 
good  results  can  be  obtained  by  placing  the  gravel  measuring  box 
on  top  of  the  carefully  leveled  sand  and  cement  mixture,  and  filling 


HOME    USES    OF    CONCRETE 


105 


it,  thus  placing  the  gravel  on  top  without  an  extra  shoveling. 
This  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  Add  about  three-fourths  the 
required  amount  of  water,  using  a  bucket  and  dashing  the  water 
over  the  gravel  on  top  as  evenly  as  possible.  (See  Fig.  7.)  Be 


A     Sand.     B     Stone.     C    Walks.     D     Barrel  for  water. 
E     Cement.     G     Cement.     H     Sand. 

FIG.  2.     SPREADING  THE  CEMEXT  ON  THE  SAND 


careful  not  to  let  too  much  water  get  near  the  edge  of  the  pile,  as 
it  will  run  off,  taking  some  of  the  cement  with  it.  This  caution, 
however,  does  not  apply  to  a  properly  constructed  mixing  board,  as 
the  cement  and  water  cannot  get  away.  Starting  the  same  as 
with  the  sand  and  cement,  turn  the  materials  off  the  end  of  the 
shovel,  the  whole  shovel  load  is  dumped  as  at  points  I  or  2  in  the 
diagram  under  Fig.  2  and  dragged  back  toward  the  mixer  with  the 
square  point  of  the  shovel.  This  mixes  the  gravel  with  the  sand 
and  cement,  the  wet  gravel  picking  up  the  sand  and  cement  as  it 
rolls  over  when  dragged  back  by  the  shovel.  (See  Fig.  8.)  Add 
water  to  the  dry  spots  as  the  mixing  goes  on  until  all  the  required 


io6 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 


water  has  been  used.  Turn  the  mass  back  again,  as  was  done 
with  the  sand  and  cement.  With  experienced  laborers,  the  con- 
crete should  be  well  mixed  after  three  such  turnings;  but  if  it 
shows  streaky  or  dry  spots,  it  must  be  turned  again.  After  the 


A     Sand.     B     Stone.     C    Walks.     D    Barrel  for  water. 
E  Cement.  G  Cement.   H  Sand.    I    Sand  and  Cement  mixed. 
FIG.  3.     FIRST  TURN  OVER  SAND  AND  CEMENT 

final  turning,  shovel  into  a  compact  pile.     The  concrete  is  now 
ready  for  placing." 

The  mixing  of  concrete  should  be  more  than  mixing.  It 
should  be  kneading  and  working  the  mass  as  well.  For  this  reason 
mechanical  mixers  are  more  satisfactory  on  larger  jobs.  Select  a 
mixer  that  kneads  as  well  as  stirs  the  concrete,  one  that  has  an  ar- 
rangement of  buckets  inside  the  drum  whereby  the  material  is 
lifted  well  toward  the  top  of  the  drum  before  it  drops  the  material 
as  the  wheel  revolves.  This  type  mixer  is  more  satisfactory  than 
the  mixer  having  only  vanes  in  the  drum  or  mixing  chamber.  There 
should  be  no  recesses  in  the  mixer  where  concrete  may  lodge,  set 
up  and  require  a  chisel  to  be  removed. 


HOME    USES    OF    CONCRETE 


107 


When  a  mechanical  mixer  is  used,  the  concrete  should  be 
mixed  in  the  mixer  at  least  one  minute.  The  speed  of  the 
mixer  should  be  between  ten  and  sixteen  revolutions  per  minute. 


A     Sand.     B     Stone.     C    Walks.     D    Barrel  for  water. 
E     Cement.     J     Sand  and  Cement. 

FIG.  4.     SECOND  TURN  OVER  SAND  AND  CEMENT 

The  mixer  should  be  strongly  built  to  withstand  hard  usage  by 
unskilled  men. 

Mixers  usually  are  equipped  with  a  skip,  which  receives  the 
materials.  First  the  sand  is  put  in,  then  the  cement  and  then  the 
wet  stone  or  gravel.  The  skip  then  dumps  into  the  mixer  and  a 
workman  adds  the  water  by  means  of  a  hose.  In  mixing  concrete 
by  hand  only  buckets  should  be  used  to  add  the  water.  The 
coarse  aggregate  should  be  wet  before  being  mixed.  Also,  wher- 
ever cement  mortar  is  used  in  masonry,  the  stone  should  be  wet 
first. 

Never  mix  concrete  on  the  ground  if  avoidable.  Use  a  board 
or  platform,  preferably  of  tongued  and  grooved  material,  with  a 


io8 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 


small  edge  two  or  three  inches  higher  than  the  board,  nailed  at  the 
edges  to  prevent  material  from  being  washed  off.  The  board  may 
be  any  size  big  enough  for  men  to  work  on.  A  board  eight  or  ten 


A    Sand.     B  Stone.     C    Walks.     D    Barrel  for  Water. 

E     Cement.       I  Sand    and   Cement  mixed.        L      Box  for 
Measuring  Stone. 

FIG.  5.     FILLING  THE  Box  TO  MEASURE  THE  GRAVEL  (first  method) 

feet  square  is  about  an  average  size.  The  concrete  materials  may 
be  measured  in  a  wheelbarrow  or  other  receptacle,  but  -a  more 
accurate  way  is  to  use  a  measuring  box,  which  is  a  frame  without 
top  or  bottom  and  with  handles  for  lifting  it  projecting  at  each  Aid. 
The  size  of  these  boxes  varies  with  the  mixtures  to  be  used.  Tak- 
ing a  2-bag  batch,  that  is  a  batch  requiring  two  bags  of  cement, 
the  1-1^2-3  mixture  requires  a  box  3  by  2  feet  and  16  inches  deep, 
inside  dimensions.  The  1-2-4  mixture  requires  a  box  of  the  same 
depth  but  4  feet  long  and  2  feet,  4  inches  wide.  The  1-2^-5 
mixture  requires  a  box  a  foot  deep,  4}^  feet  long,  and  2  feet,  2 
inches  wide  while  1-3-6  mixture  requires  a  box  the  same  depth 


HOME    USES    OF    CONCRETE 


109 


and  length  but  two  feet  7  inches  wide.     One  box,  however,  can 
be  adapted  to  all  uses  with  a  little  figuring. 

A  quick  direction  for  mixing  concrete  by  hand  is  to  spread 
out  the  sand,  add   the  cement,  then   turn   three  or  four  times, 


A     Sand.     B     Stone.     C    Walks.     D     Barrel  for  water. 
E     Cement.     I     Sand  and  Cement  mixed.     LB     Stone. 
FIG.  6.     FILLING   THE    Box  *OR  MEASURING  THE  GRAVEL  WHICH  is 
SURROUNDED  BY  THE    SAND    AND  CEMENT    MIXED    (second   method) 

shoveling  from  you  and  until  the  color  of  sand  and  cement  mixture 
show  they  are  well  mixed.  Then  add  wet  stone  and  shovel,  turning 
the  mixture  over,  three  times  or  more  before  adding  the  water. 
Concrete  should  be  placed  as  soon  as  mixed.  For  this  reason 
only  small  batches  should  be  mixed  at  a  time.  Concrete  may 
be  mixed  during  freezing  weather  provided  the  ingredients  are 
heated  and  the  concrete  after  it  is  placed  is  prevented  from 
freezing  until  it  has  set  by  covering  it  with  at  least  fifteen  inches 
of  hay,  straw,  sawdust  or  some  other  available  suitable  material. 
Never  use  manure,  it  may  discolor  the  concrete  and  it  is  very 
apt  to  cause  the  surface  of  the  concrete  to  disintegrate.  If  a 


IIO  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

concrete  job  must  be  left  over  night  unfinished,  as  frequently  is  the 
case,  it  is  excellent  practice  the  next  morning  to  scrape  off  the  un- 
finished surface  and  cover  it  with  a  thick  cream  mixture  of  cement 


FIG.  7.     POURING    THE    WATER    OVER    GRAVEL  WHICH    is  ON  TOP 
OF  SAND  AND  CEMENT  MIXTURE 

about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick  before  dumping  on  the  fresh 
concrete.  On  floors,  sidewalks  and  other  exposed  surfaces  of 
concrete,  wet  down  the  surfaces  daily  while  the  concrete  is  setting, 
for,  if  one  part  dries  rapidly  and  another  slowly  the  concrete  is 
weakened. 

Do  not  make  the  natural  mistake  of  supposing  that  a  gravel 
bank  is  fixed  by  Nature  as  a  sort  of  natural  concrete  and  that, 
therefore,  the  gravel  bank  has  the  coarse  aggregate  all  ready  for 
use.  Instead,  screen  the  material  taken  from  the  gravel  bank  so 
that  an  evenly  graded  lot  of  gravel,  from  one-quarter  inch  particles 
to  gradually  larger  particles  is  obtained  and  the  finer  stuff  and 
possibly  too  large  a  quantity  of  the  larger  gravels  eliminated.  Ex- 
cellent coarse  aggregate  is  found  in  the  tailings  from  mine  mills. 
This  aggregate  usually  runs  about  J4  to  ^  inches  in  diameter. 
Quarry  screenings  are  good  for  use  in  concrete  if  they  are  clean. 
but  usually  they  are  so  dusty  that  they  cannot  be  used  with  good 
results.  Cinders  and  slag  should  not  be  used  in  concrete,  except 
for  the  sub-base  in  such  work  as  sidewalks  and  barn  or  cellar  floors. 

The  only  really  essential  rules  for  forms  for  concrete  are  that 
the  forms  be  tight  and  that  they  be  braced  and  fastened  just  tight 


HOME    USES    OF    CONCRETE  III 

enough  to  hold  the  concrete  without  leaking  until  the  mass  hardens. 
Making  forms  over-strong  necessitates  more  work  and  hammering 
in  removing  the  forms  and  the  less  hammering  and  jarring  about 


FIG.  8.     MIXING  THE  GRAVEL  WITH  THE  SAND  AND  CEMENT 

green  concrete  the  better.  Carpenters  who  regularly  build  and 
tear  down  concrete  forms  frequently  do  not  drive  nails  home,  so 
that  the  nails  may  be  pulled  more  readily  when  the  forms  are 
taken  down.  Green  lumber  is  excellent  for  concrete  forms,  for 
the  same  reason  that  lath  often  are  allowed  to  remain  in  a  damp 
place  in  lumber  yards.  Not  being  seasoned  and  dried  out  they 
are  not  likely  to  warp  and  pull  away  when  put  next  to  a  wet  mix- 
ture of  concrete  or  mortar.  The  forms  should  be  smooth  for 
smooth-finish  work,  of  course.  To  facilitate  removal,  or  as  in  the 
case  of  an  iron  rod  used  to  leave  a  hole  in  a  concrete  fence  post,  the 
form  or  parts  of  the  form  are  greased. 

In  making  a  cistern  the  1-2-4  mixture  of  concrete  three  or 
four  inches  thick  should  be  used  with  5  to  10  per  cent  of  slaked 
lime  putty  being  used  in  place  of  a  like  quantity  of  the  cement. 
The  bottom  of  the  cistern  should  be  at  least  six  inches  thick  and 
for  the  outside  of  the  cistern  the  earth  walls  of  \he  excavation  may 
be  used  for  the  outside  of  the  form.  To  obtain  the  greatest  water 
storing  space,  the  cistern  should  be  i^  times  as  deep  as  wide. 
The  old  jug-top  cistern  was  wasteful  of  space  and  material.  It  is 
better  to  build  the  walls  straight  up,  capping  with  an  8-inch  thick 


112  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

slab  of  concrete  that  is  reinforced  with  heavy  woven  wire  or  with 
iron  rods. 

In  building  basement  walls  for  a  dwelling  it  is  poor  economy 

to  make  the  cellar  excavation  just  large  enough.     Make  it  a  foot 

larger  all  around  and  then  you  can  insure  against  water  seeping 

into  the  basement  through  the  walls.     Use  1-2^-5  mixture  for 

basement  walls  and  always  in  wall  construction  it  is  wise  to  have 

at  least  a  little  6-inch  toe  and  heel  at  the  base  of  the  wall,  thus: 

I — 1     The  basement  walls  should  be    several    inches    thicker 

J    I     than  the  wall  they  are  to  carry.     When  the  forms  have 

^ — ^    been   removed   coat  the  outside  of    the   wall   with    hot 

asphaltum   before  filling  in  the  earth  against  the  wall.     Forms 

may  be  removed  in  a  day  or  two  days  where  there  is  no  pressure 

on  the  work.     In  heavy  work  the  forms  should  remain  a  week  to 

three  weeks. 

For  durable  barn  and  cellar  floors,  put  in  a  sub-base  5  or  6 
inches  thick  of  cinders  and  tamp.  Then  spread  the  concrete  mix- 
ture 1-23/2-5  about  3  inches  thick  and  on  this  put  an  inch  of  a 
mixture  of  I  part  cement  and  ij/^  parts  sand.  For  steps  use  the 
stronger  1-2-4  mixture  with  the  finishing  mixture  of  I  part  cement 
and  ij^>  parts  sand,  and  for  sidewalks  follow  the  directions  as  for 
barn  or  cellar  floors,  except  using  a  leaner  mixture,  1-2-5,  an<^  the 
same  finishing  mixture. 

But  never  trowel  the  surface  of  floor,  steps  or  sidewalk.  Their 
primary  purpose  is  to  provide  a  secure,  clean,  and  lasting  footing, 
not  to  look  and  be  slick  and  shiny.  Finish  such  surfaces  with  a 
wire  brush,  if  one  is  handy,  otherwise  use  a  straight-edge  instead  of 
a  trowel.  Sidewalks,  of  course,  should  have  contraction  joints  at 
least  six  feet  apart.  They  are  made  by  laying  the  concrete  in 
sections  and  separating  the  sections  as  laid  with  a  thickness  of 
heavy  building  paper. 

As  concrete  is  dumped  into  the  form,  firm  it  by  tamping  wit^h  a 
piece  of  scantling  or  a  tamper  until  a  little  mortar  appears  at  the 
surface.  If  voids  appear,  first  be  sure  you  have  used  the  correct 
amount  of  sand  and  then  cut  down  on  the  quantity  of  stone.  If 
there  seems  to  be  an  excess  of  mortar,  add  more  stone.  The  im- 
portant thing  is  to  get  the  finer  materials  surrounding  the  larger 
stones.  If  the  large  particles  of  the  coarse  aggregate  are  three 


HOME    USES    OF    CONCRETE 


THE  FORMS  MAY  BE  PREVENTED  FROM    BULGING    BY  BARS  AND  BRACES 


114  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

inches  in  diameter  and  larger,  care  should  be  taken  to  tamp  the 
mass  extra  well  to  be  sure  the  large  stones  are  surrounded  by  the 
fine  material  and  that  no  voids  are  left.  To  give  a  smooth  ap- 
pearance to  the  surface  of  the  concrete,  place  a  flat,  square  end 
shovel,  the  back  of  the  shovel  against  the  form,  and  work  up  and 
down.  This  forces  the  larger  particles  toward  the  center  and  en- 
ables a  larger  quantity  of  the  smaller  material  to  flow  up  against 
the  form. 

In  making  tanks,  troughs  or  other  heavy  above  ground  con- 
tainers, woven  wire  of  a  size  used  in  hog  fences  is  excellent  rein- 
forcing. In  walls  for  buildings  the  reinforcing,  which  consists  of 
steel  rods,  varies  so  widely  in  the^  many  different  uses  for  which 
such  walls  are  built  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  in  this  space  com- 
plete directions  for  all  steel  reinforcing. 

A  good  mortar  for  laying  stone  is  I  part  cement  to  2  or  2j/£ 
parts  sand.  Workmen  often  add  lime  to  cement  mortar  because 
lime  makes  the  mortar  work  much  more  easily.  But  usually  they 
add  too  much  lime  and  thereby  decrease  the  strength  of  the  mortar. 


IRRIGATION    AND    DRAINAGE 


CHAPTER  XII 
IRRIGATION  AND    DRAINAGE 

TOO  much  rain  or  too  little  rain  causes  crop  failures  and  heavy 
losses.  The  best  farming  methods  possible  frequently  are 
utterly  unavailing  before  bad  weather,  droughts  or  too  much  rain. 
Weather  is  the  greatest  factor  in  farming,  the  most  essential, 
changeable,  and  uncontrolled  thing  ever  imposed  on  any  industry. 
Control  the  weather,  and  the  biggest  handicap  to  farming  is  re- 
moved. 

But  it's  absurd  to  suggest  controlling  the  weather,  some  one 
remarks.  Yes,  that's  true  in  a  measure,  but  in  the  last  few  years 
quite  a  few  farmers  throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley  have  found 
they  can  take  the  teeth  out  of  the  periodic  summer  drought  by 
using  a  centrifugal  pump  to  lift  water  from  rivers,  creeks  or 
shallow  wells  onto  the  somewhat-level  bottom-land  fields.  These 
men  do  not  aim  to  irrigate  continuously.  They  live  in  the  rain 
belt,  and  don't  have  to.  Their  purpose  is  to  supply  water  only 
occasionally  in  dry  weather  and  thus  to  keep  crops  going  until  the 
rains  surely  will  come  again.  It  is  not  the  whole  period  of  drought 
that  ruins,  buj;  the  last  week  or  two  weeks  just  before  the  drought 
is  broken. 

A  good  example  of  how  this  new  drought-breaking  work  is 
done  is  that  of  a  Missouri  farmer  who  protects  twenty  acres  of  his 
best  corn  land  from  drought  and  from  too  much  rain  by  means  of  a 
little  4-inch  centrifugal  pump.  This  particular  twenty  acres  that 
is  made  partly  independent  of  the  weather,  lies  in  the  old  bed  of  a 
small  river.  It  fills  up  with  water  if  the  spring  rains  or  early  sum- 
mer precipitation  happen  to  be  a  little  generous  and  the  crop  on  it 
is  drowned  out.  It  is  practically  useless  in  wet  years.  In  favor- 
able seasons  it  produces  as  well  as  any  $150  an  acre  land  in  the 
valley.  It  would  require  a  ditch  almost  two  miles  long,  to  the 
river,  to  drain  this  field.  Efforts  of  the  farm  owner  to  form  a 
drainage  district  met  objection  from  neighbors. 

It  seemed  a  hopeless  problem  until  some  one  suggested  that 
the  farm  owner  try  a  pump.  The  power  to  run  it  would  cost  him 


Il6  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

nothing,  since  he  had  a  15-inch  turbine  wheel  in  his  own  water 
power  plant,  developing  about  twenty  horse  power  under  a  1 7-foot 
head  of  water.  So  he  put  in  a  4-inch  centrifugal  pump  in  a  shallow 
pit  in  the  lowest  point  in  the  field,  connected  it  with  an  electric 
motor,  and  laid  about  100  feet  of  4-inch  pipe  to  discharge  the 


IRRIGATION  AND  DRAINAGE  NEEDS  CAN  BE  MET  CHEAPLY  WITH  THIS 
TYPE      OF      CENTRIFUGAL     PUMP    OPERATED    BY    WATER    POWER 

water  through.  He  had  to  lift  the  water  to  a  height  of  thirty  feet 
to  get  it  over  a  little  hill  or  ridge  and  then  a  short  distance  beyonxi, 
where  it  would  discharge  into  the  natural  drainage  of  a  pasture. 

It  was  wholly  an  experiment  on  that  farmer's  part,  but  it  was 
a  success.  In  rainy  seasons  the  pump  worked  day  and  night,  dis- 
charging 500  gallons  of  water  a  minute  and  saving  the  crop.  It 
cost  nothing  to  run  it.  It.  led  to  another  successful  experiment. 
One  dry  summer  the  owner  dug  a  shallow  well  at  the  highest  point 
in  the  field,  put  the  pump  and  its  motor  in  a  wheel  barrow  and 
moved  them  up  to  the  well.  He  found  he  could  irrigate  the  field, 
since  the  power  to  run  the  pump  as  an  irrigation  plant  costjthe 
same  as  to  operate  it  as  a  drainage  plant — nothing. 

This  actual  experience  is  worth  the  widest  publicity  that  state 
or  national  agricultural  agencies  could  give  it.  It  is  a  progressive, 
practical  example  of  how  one  farm  made  at  least  twenty  acres  in- 
dependent of  the  weather.  It  is  an  introduction  to  another  way 
of  fighting  bad  weather  successfully.  It  was  installed  entirely 
without  technical  advice  and  when  the  writer  of  this  chapter  first 


IRRIGATION    AND    DRAINAGE  117 

saw  it,  had  been  in  operation  several  years.  The  farmer  was 
justly  proud  of  his  work,  as  he  explained  to  the  writer  how  he  had 
installed  the  dual  purpose,  drainage  and  irrigation,  plant. 

"That  little  pump,"  he  said  fondly,  "is  80  tg  85  per  cent 
efficient.     My  turbine  over  there  is  better  than  that." 


WHERE  THE  WATER  is  TO  BE  PUMPED  TO  MORE  THAN  ORDINARY  HEIGHTS 
THIS  TYPE  OF  CENTRIFUGAL  PUMP  is  DESIGNED  TO  BE  MOST  SERVICEABLE 

"Your  turbine  wheel  may  rate  that  high,  all  right,"  replied 
the  writer,  "but  your  pump  is  nearer  50  than  80  per  cent  efficient. " 

Pressed  for  an  explanation,  the  writer  added: 

"It  isn't  in  the  nature  of  these  smaller  centrifugals  to  have 
85  per  cent  efficiency.  An  expensive  plunger  pump  would  be  more 
efficient  perhaps,  but  its  cost  would  be  so  high  you  couldn't  afford 
to  install  it.  Your  centrifugal  is  so  much  cheaper  and  yet  so 
practical  that  it  is  the  businesslike  pump  for  you.  You've  got  the 
right  pump,  all  right,  but  you've  crippled  it  badly  by  hooking  it  to 
a  4-inch  discharge  pipe.  If  you  had  only  changed  the  size  of  the 
pipe,  used  a  5-inch  pipe,  you  could  have  increased  the  efficiency  of 
your  pump  12  or  15  per  cent." 

"But  I've  made  good  money  running  this  pump,"  protected 
the  farmer. 

"Of  course  you  have.  And  you  could  have  made  better 
money  by  paying  a  little  more  for  an  inch-larger  pipe.  It's  this 
way:  You  have  to-  raise  that  water  to  a  height  of  thirty  feet  and 
carry  it  a  distance  of  100  feet  through  the  pipe,  don't  you?  There's 


Il8  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

bound  to  be  friction  between  the  water  and  the  walls  of  the  pipe, 
isn't  there?  Well,  you're  jamming  500  gallons  of  water  through 
100  feet  of  4-inch  pipe  a  minute  and  the  friction  in  putting  so  large 
a  quantity  of  water  through  so  small  a  pipe  in  a  minute  is  tre- 
mendous. It  is  equal  to  having  to  pump  that  water  an  additional 
twenty-five  feet  higher  than  the  top  of  that  little  3<>foot  ridge  you 
have  to  lift  it  over.  If  you  had  a  5-inch  pipe  here,  the  friction 
would  be  equivalent  to  having  to  lift  the  water  only  an  additional 
six  feet  higher;  and  if  you  had  a  6-inch  pipe,  the  friction  would  be 
equivalent  to  raising  the  water  only  three  feet  high. 

"  Now  you  can't  change  the  fact  that  you  have  to  lift  the  water 
thirty  feet  high  to  get  it  over  that  ridge,  but^  you  can  change  the 
size  of  the  pipe  and  cut  down  the  friction  greatly.  No,  this  mis- 
take in  using  the  wrong  size  of  pipe  doesn't  hurt  here  because  your 
power  costs  you  nothing,  but  if  you  were  using  a  gasoline  engine 
or  buying,  instead  of  making  your  own  electric  current,  it  would  be 
pretty  expensive.  Here  is  where  you  lose.  You  have  to  use  a 
io-horse  power  motor  to  pump  through  that  4-inch  pipe.  You 
could  use  a  motor  at  least  two  horse  power  smaller  and  save  $50 
in  the  purchase  price  of  the  motor  if  you  had  a  5-inch  pipe.  That 
saving  of  $50,  however,  would  not  be  net  since  your  100  feet  of 
4-inch  pipe  cost  you  $44  and  100  feet  of  5-inch  pipe  would  cost  you 
$59,  leaving  a  net  saving  of  $35  which  is  worth  saving.  No,  I 
do  not  believe  that  .the  6-inch  pipe  would  be  feasible.  It  would 
cost  $78,  but  at  that  maybe  the  resultant  saving  of  $15  might  be 
all  right.  It's  simply  a  question  of  using  the  expert  advice  of  a 
reliable  manufacturer  when  you  are  considering  employing  any 
device  for  handling  water.  As  you  have  done,  it  is  easy  for  any 
practical  man  to  install  a  successful  and  economical  water  power 
plant  and  to  adapt  it  to  drainage,  irrigation  or  other  work." 

This  incident  is  repeated  here  for  its  real  worth  in  showing 
still  another  use  of  the  home  water  power  plant  and  as  an  illiiptra- 
tion  of  the  advantages  to  be  gained  in  consulting  reliable  and  com- 
petent expert  opinion.  If  after  you  have  read  the  text  of  this 
book,  you  will  turn  to  the  pages  in  the  last  part,  giving  pipe 
friction -tables  and  other  tabulated  information,  you  will  find  it  is 
time  well  spent  in  looking  at  them  carefully  for  a  bit.  Any  water 
problem  that  they  do  not  seem  to  apply  to  will  be  quickly  and  ac- 
curately explained  if  you  will  write  a  letter  to  the  Rodney  Hunt 
Machine  Company,  Orange,  Massachusetts. 


PURE    WATER   AND    HOW   TO    GET   IT  119 


CHAPTER  XIII 

PURE  WATER  AND    How  TO    GET  IT 

THE  whole  world  is  water  marked  to  an  extent  most  of  us  never 
take  time  to  realize.  The  human  body  is  70  per  cent  water, 
practically  all  the  soil  from  which  comes  the  food  we  eat  is  made 
by  erosion,  the  freezing,  thawing,  and  dissolving  action  of  water, 
and  the  greatest  expenditure  of  energy  in  the  world  is  in  the 
moving  of  the  tides,  the  flowing  of  brooks  and  rivers,  the  evapora- 
tion and  condensation  of  water.  It  is  the  most  widely  and  gener- 
ously distributed  material  on  the  face  of  the  globe.  It  is  the  one 
great  tangible  substance  perhaps  most  necessary  to  life,  but,  like 
the  fish  that  was  born  to  take  water  for  granted,  most  of  us  never 
give  water  more  than  an  instinctive  thought. 

We  have  seen  in  the  preceding  chapters  how  energy  in  water 
may  be  put  to  broad  and  beneficent  use,  to  generate  electricity 
and  run  machinery.  This  chapter  takes  up  the  nature  of  water  in 
household  use,  the  safeguarding  of  the  home  water  supply,  the 
curing  of  polluted  and  hard  waters.  This  subject  has  nothing  to 
do  with  water  power  development,  but  it  is  included  here  because 
it  is  the  intention  of  this  book  to  be  a  comprehensive  and  reliable 
work  on  water  for  home,  school,  and  community  reference. 

Very,  very  few  men  since  the  day  Adam  quaffed  his  first  cup 
of  that  celebrated  brew,  Adam's  Ale,  ever  have  drunk  so  much  as 
one  tumbler  of  pure  water.  Pure  water  does  not  exist  in  nature. 
Rain  water  is  not  pure.  It  takes  up  carbonic  acid,  certain  harm- 
less bacteria  and  other  substances  from  the  air,  and  since  it  con- 
tains these  things,  it  is  not  pure.  It  is  wholesome,  but  it  is  not 
pure.  The  only  pure  water  is  artificial  water,  distilled  water, 
which  is  flat,  tasteless,  and  mildly  unpleasant  for  drinking  purposes 
until  it  is  brought  into  contact  with  air  by  being  aerated. 

Rain  water  is  particularly  desirable  because  it  is  soft.  The 
quality  of  softness  in  water  consists  of  the  absence  of  certain 


I2O  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

mineral  salts.  Soft  water  requires  less  soap  than  hard  water. 
Hard  water  costs  more  than  100  million  dollars  a  year  in  soap  loss 
or  waste  alone  in  the  United  States,  it  is  authoritatively  estimated. 
Try  to  make  a  lather  in  a  basin  of  hard  wate*.  First,  a  considerable 
quantity  of  the  soap  must  unite  with  the  "hardness,"  the  mineral 
salts,  and  that  quantity  of  soap  is  wasted  in  forming  with  the 
"hardness"  soap  curds,  grayish-white  coagulations  of  soap  and 
minute  particles  of  lime  and  magnesia  that  float  on  the  surface  and 
that  decidedly  are  not  lather.  After  a  quantity  of  soap  has  pro- 
duced these  soap  curds,  then  a  second  quantity  of  soap  may  form  a 
lather,  which  demonstrates  how  hard  water  requires  much  more 
soap  than  soft  water. 

In  addition  to  this  huge  soap  loss  the  loss  in  boiler  and  pipe 
damage  through  corrosion  and  incrustation  by  hard  water  also 
runs  far  into  the  millions  of  dollars  annually.  It  probably  is  a 
conservative  assumption  that  the  billions  of  dollars  the  World  War 
has  cost  could  be  paid  by  the  saving  in  soap,  pipes,  and  boilers  in 
the  next  generation,  possibly  in  the  next  decade,  if  the  world  could 
eliminate  hard  water  in  domestic  and  industrial  uses.  On  the 
other  hand,  physicians  have  noted  an  apparent  greater  tendency  to 
goiter  among  inhabitants  of  certain  Alpine  districts  and  in  other 
regions  where  the  natural  waters  are  soft  and  where,  consequently, 
soft  water  only  is  used.  While  hard  water  is  an  immense  loss  to 
steam  plants,  so  much  so  that  many  railroads  and  industries  have 
installed  water-softening  plants  to  supply  their  boilers  and  for 
other  uses,  it  makes  absolutely  no  difference  to  the  turbine  water 
wheel  or  the  rim-leverage  wheel  whether  hard  or  soft  water  is  used. 
Hard  water  does  not  damage  them,  which  adds  just  one  more 
advantage  to  the  long  list  of  advantages  water  power  production 
has  over  any  other  form  of  power  production. 

Besides  rain  water,  there  are  two  general  classifications  of 
natural  waters:  surface  waters  and  ground  waters.  Surface 
waters  are  the  waters  in  streams  and  lakes.  Ground  waters  are 
the  waters  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  natural  waters  of 
a  large  part  of  New  England  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  soft, 
but  in  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States  and  the  world, 
the  natural  waters  are  hard.  Rain  water  trickling  through  soil 
and  earth  takes  up  lime  and  magnesia.  To  use  chemical  terms, 


PURE    WATER   AND    HOW    TO    GET    IT  121 

the  water  then  has  in  solution  bicarbonates  of  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium, and  is  hard  water.  It  is  called  temporary  hard  water  be- 
cause it  can  be  softened  by  boiling,  as  is  shown  by  the  scale  that 
forms  in  tea  kettles.  Also,  odd  as  it  may  seem,  this  water  may  be 
softened,  made  to  precipitate  its  lime  and  magnesia,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  small  quantity  of  hydrated  lime.  Permanently  hard 
water  contains  chlorides,  sulphates,  and  nitrates  of  calcium  and 
magnesium,  and  other  substances.  It  is  said  to  be  permanently 
hard  because  it  cannot  be  softened  by  boiling.  Almost  all  ground 
waters  contain  iron.  The  iron  can  be  removed  by  aerating,  letting 
the  water  fall  from  one  shallow  tank  to  another  so  that  the  thin 
sheet  of  falling  water  is  struck  by  the  air,  the  oxygen  of  which 
starts  a  chemical  reaction  with  the  iron  in  solution  and  causes  it  to 
be  precipitated  in  a  thick,  rust-colored  slime.  Sand,  gravel,  and 
charcoal  niters  remove  most  of  the  iron  that  remains  in  suspension. 
The  other  minerals  in  the  permanently  hard  water,  such  as  the 
chlorides,  sulphates,  and  nitrates  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  are 
removed  and  the  water  softened  by  the  addition  of  soda  ash,  the 
water  then  being  allowed  to  settle  in  settling  basins. 

These  methods  of  softening  water  may  be  successfully  and 
easily  applied  to  home  needs  by  using  two  or  three  barrels  and  a 
small  quantity  of  lime  or  soda  ash,  both  of  which  are  cheap.  The 
quantity  of  lime  or  soda  ash  to  use  varies  with  the  degree  of  hard- 
ness of  the  water  and  no  general  recipe  or  formula  will  apply  to  all 
waters.  Where  hard  water  works  a  real  inconvenience,  a  home 
water-softening  plant  will  save  much  labor  and  dollars  and  cents, 
in  soap  and  in  preventing  damage  to  automobile  radiators,  water 
heaters  and  boilers.  The  necessary  procedure  is  to  send  a  sample 
of  the  water  to  a  reliable  laboratory  and  obtain  an  analysis  and 
directions  for  treating.  This  is  the  most  expensive  part.  The 
rest  is  to  fill  a  barrel  with  water  and  put  in  the  tiny  amount  of  lime 
or  soda  ash  called  for  in  the  directions,  let  the  water  settle  and  then 
draw  it  off  into  a  soft  water  barrel. 

A  few  restricted  areas  have  waters  so  strongly  impregnated 
with  minerals  it  is  almost  impossible  to  treat  them — for  example, 
the  black  alkali  waters  of  certain  districts  in  the  West.  The 
washing  powders  sold  to  soften  laundry  and  dish  water  constitute 
simply  another  form  of  the  soda  ash  method  of  softening  water; 
only,  the  softening  of  the  comparatively  small  quantity  of  dish  and 


122  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

laundry  water  by  dumping  in  an  indeterminate  quantity  of  wash- 
ing powder  is  many  times  more  costly  than  by  softening  much 
more  water  as  suggested  in  the  foregoing. 

A  cistern  embraces  a  cheap  method  of  avoiding  hard  water  in 
limited  household  use.  The  cheapest  dimensions  for  a  cistern  are 
given  in  the  chapter  on  concrete  construction  in  this  book.  As 
cistern  water  is  stored  rain  water,  usually,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  rain  water  attacks  lead  pipes  or  any  form  of  lead  it  comes  in 
contact  with  and  that  if  it  is  carried  through  lead  pipes,  painfully 
acute,  if  not  fatal,  lead  poisoning  may  result.  Hard  water  softened 
by  lime  or  soda  ash,  however,  remains  sufficiently  alkaline  so  that 
it  does  not  react  with  lead  and  hence  will  not  cause  lead  poisoning. 
Lead  pipe,  luckily,  has  gone  almost  entirely  out  of  use  in  modern 
plumbing.  Galvanized  iron  pipe  is  cheaper  and  better. 

The  old  saying  that,  "Water  purifies  itself  every  hundred 
feet,"  is  a  harmful  hoax.  A  pond  or  lake  purifies  itself  more 
quickly  by  sunlight  and  sedimentation  than  does  a  running  stream. 
Germs  are  not  bugs,  which  is  a  common  notion.  They  are  tiny, 
delicate  plants  that  usually  live  only  a  few  days.  There  are  ex- 
ceptions to  this,  for  the  spores  of  the  tetanus  germ,  which  causes 
lockjaw,  will  live  for  years  under  most  unfavorable  conditions  of 
heat  and  dryness.  Tetanus,  however,  is  not  a  water-borne  disease 
and  need  not  be  considered  in  relation  to  the  water  supply.  Ty- 
phoid, the  chief  water-borne  disease,  may  lie  dormant  for  weeks  in 
snow  and  ice  and  then  become  virulent  with  the  first  thaw  that 
washes  it  into  a  water  course.  But  usually  it  dies  within  a  week. 
Sunlight,  sedimentation  and  other  micro-organisms  kill  it.  Algae, 
the  green  scum  that  forms  in  tanks,  ponds,  and  still  waters,  also 
acts  to  purify  water.  Muddy  streams  are  frequently  less  infected 
than  clear  streams  because  the  clay  and  silt  in  suspension  in  the 
muddy  streams  carry  the  bacteria  to  the  bottom.  It  is  what 
bacteriologists  call  the  "resistant  minority,"  the  very  few  e^tra- 
vigorous  and  hardy  germs  that  resist  nature's  sterilizing  agencies, 
that  causes  the  trouble.  They  must  be  guarded  against  wherever 
water  is  used. 

Cities  have  practically  eliminated  typhoid  by  sedimentation 
and  by  treating  the  water  with  chlorinated  lime,  commonly  and 
incorrectly  called  chloride  of  lime,  which  can  be  bought  for  fifteen 
or  twenty  cents  a  pound  in  small  quantities.  The  records  show 


PU-RE    WATER   AND    HOW   TO    GET   IT  123 

that  cities  that  impound  water  a  considerable  time  in  reservoirs 
have  better  water  than  those  that  store  water  a  shorter  time. 
Storing  water  in  ponds  or  reservoirs  or  tanks  is  practicable  in  any 
country  home  having  water  power,  and  further  adapting  the  suc- 
cessful city  and  army  use  of  chlorinated  lime  for  purifying  water 
for  home  use  can  be  done  by  following  the  directions  herewith: 

With  a  wooden  stick  stir  a  half  pound  of  chlorinated  lime  in  a 
granite,  earthen  or  glass  container  several  minutes.  Add  enough 
water  to  make  a  gallon  of  the  solution.  Then  dissolve  thirteen 
ounces  of  sal  soda  in  a  half  gallon  of  lukewarm  water  to  which  is 
added  five  ounces  of  soda  ash.  Add  more  water  to  mak'e  a  gallon. 
Mix  the  two  solutions  in  an  earthenware,  granite  or  glass  con- 
tainer— never  in  metal — and  after  it  has  settled  pour  the  clear 
solution  into  bottles,  cork  tight  and  set  in  a  cool,  dark  place  for 
future  use.  Keep  the  solution  out  of  reach  of  children,  for  it  is 
corrosive  and  poisonous.  This  stock  solution  will  last  a  year,  and 
one  ounce  of  the  solution  will  sterilize  100  gallons  of  water.  Water 
in  a  cistern  or  wooden  tank  can  be  treated  with  the  proper  amount 
of  the  solution  by  determining  the  quantity  of  water  and  adding  an 
ounce  of  the  solution  for  each  100  gallons  of  water.  The  quantity 
of  water  in  a  cylindrical  container  may  be  determined  by  multi- 
plying .7855  by  the  diameter  of  the  container,  then  multiplying 
that  result  by  the  diameter  again  and  then  by  the  depth  of  water. 
That  will  give  the  contents  in  cubic  feet  and  the  number  of  gallons 
may  be  determiaed  by  multiplying  the  cubic  feet  by  7^.  It  is 
understood  that  the  diameter  is  computed  in  feet,  not  inches. 

Algae,  tiny  aquatic  plants,  that  frequently  form  green- scum  in 
stock  tanks,  are  harmless.  Their  chief  disadvantage  is  that  they 
are  in  the  way  and  that  some  varieties  give  off  an  offensive  odor. 
They  may  be  eliminated  by  adding  five  grains  of  copper  sulphate 
to  each  100  gallons  of  water  to  be  cleared  up. 

Most  ground  waters  are  free  of  germs,  if  not  infected  by  seep- 
age from  human  habitation.  For  this  reason  cisterns  should  not 
leak  and  wells  should  have  water-tight  walls  the  first  fifteen  or 
twenty  feet  below  the  surface.  Below  that  distance  it  may  be 
generally  assumed  that  any  seepage  getting  into  the  well  will  have 
been  adequately  filtered  by  the  earth  it  has  passed  through. 
Below  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  the  walls  of  the  well  may  be  of  loose 


124  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

stone.  Wells  and  cisterns  should  be  covered  tightly  to  prevent 
water  from  leaking  in.  Cesspools  and  other  sources  of  infection 
should  be  located  on  ground  lower  than  the  well  and  so  that 
seepage  may  drain  off  and  filter  through  the  soil  and  upper  strata 
a  sufficient  distance  from  the  well  before  it  reaches  ground  water 
in  the  sheet  or  table  of  water  that  lies  below  the  surface  in  most 
localities. 

In  closely  inhabited  areas  well  water  is  rarely  safe,  except 
from  very  deep  wells.  The  soil  and  sub-strata  become  impreg- 
nated with  pollution  and  no  longer  act  as  filters.  Also  the  danger 
from  fissures  that  form  underground  channels  comparatively  free 
from  filtering  materials  is  ever  present,  particularly  so  in  limestone 
countries,  threatening  to  lead  seepage  direct  to  the  well  or  near  it. 
A  few  years  ago  in  a  middle  western  town  eight  persons  in  one 
house  had  typhoid  fever.  All  had  drunk  water  from  a  well  on  the 
premises.  Analysis  showed  the  water  infected  with  typhoid 
bacilli.  Investigation  revealed  that  there  had  been  a  case  of 
typhoid  fever  in  a  house  several  blocks  away.  In  the  house  where 
the  typhoid  case  had  been  the  investigator  poured  fluorescin  into 
the  drains.  Some  hours  later  water  drawn  from  the  infected  well 
several  blocks  distant  was  colored  by  the  dye,  fluorescin.  The 
sewer  of  the  typhoid  case  house  leaked  and  the  seepage  from  it  had 
found  its  way  through  a  fissure  and  flowed  down  to  the  well  or 
sufficiently  near  it  to  get  into  the  water  of  the  well. 

There  is  more  typhoid  fever  in  rural  districts  than  in  cities, 
because  cities  can  afford  to  hire  experts  and  employ  expensive 
methods  of  supplying  wholesome  water.  Some  one  has  correctly 
said  that  typhoid  fever  was  not  a  disease  but  a  disgrace,  and  that 
is  true  because  typhoid  can  be  prevented  so  effectively.  First, 
sources  of  pollution,  such  as  cesspools,  should  be  as  far  as  possible 
from  and  lower  than  the  water  supply.  Second,  by  covering  wells 
and  cisterns  and  constructing  their  walls  against  seepage.  Tftird, 
by  pumping  water  from  a  distant  spring,  instead  of  using  a  well, 
and  employing  the  power  in  the  spring  branch  to  do  the  pumping. 
Fourth,  by  pumping  water  from  a  brook  or  spring  to  a  tank  and 
treating  with  chlorinated  lime. 

It  is  not  true  that  cows  drinking  from  infected  streams  will 
transmit  typhoid  through  the  milk.  Domestic  animals  do  not  con- 


PURE    WATER    AND    HOW    TO    GET    IT 


125 


tract  typhoid  fever.  But  it  is  decidedly  unwise  to  use  water  from 
a  questionable  source  to  supply  drinking  water  for  livestock  or 
for  anv  other  use  about  the  farm. 


TYPICAL  WATER  STORAGE  TANKS 

The  ordinary  sand,  gravel,  and  charcoal  filters  do  not  sterilize 
water.  They  remove  some  of  the  matter  in  suspension  and  are 
excellent  for  partly  clarifying  the  water,  but  they  soon  fill  up  with 
sediment  and  rotting  organic  matter  and  not  only  cease  filtering, 
but  begin  to  pollute  the  water.  Filters  must  be  cleaned  periodi- 
cally to  continue  to  filter.  Treating  with  chlorinated  lime, 
boiling,  and  using  reliable  baked  clay  filters  are  the  only  practical 
methods  for  home  use  in  sterilizing  water.  Alum  is  used  success- 
fully in  many  large  city  plants  as  a  part  of  the  clarifying  process, 
but  there  are  some  objections  to  its  use  and  it  should  not  be  em- 
ployed except  under  competent  supervision.  Settling,  and  sand, 
gravel  and  charcoal  filters,  that  are  kept  clean,  will  do  the  clarifying 
sufficiently  well  for  home  use.  In  large  water  plants  the  water 
flows  in  one  direction  through  the  filters.  When  the  filters  have 
filled  up  with  dirt  a  flow  of  water  is  sent  through  them  in  the 
opposite  direction  and  the  accumulations  washed  out. 

When  the  neglected  farm  stream  has  at  last  been  put  to  work 
furnishing  electricity  and  power  for  the  farm  home,  naturally  the 
question  arises,  why  not  better  fishing  in  the  brook  or  creek? 
Why  not,  indeed,  since  the  United  States  Government  will  gladly 
furnish  free  all  the  stock  needed  to  restock  the  stream  and  will 


126  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

deliver  them  without  charge  at  the  railroad  station  of  the  person 
applying  for  them.  If  the  dam  has  formed  a  small  pond  in  the 
stream  the  environment  for  better  fishing  may  be  made  ideal. 
Black  bass,  rock  bass,  which  are  sometimes  called  goggle-eye  or 
red-eye,  crappie,  yellow  perch,  black  perch,  and  sunfish  are  excel- 
lent varieties  to  choose.  Rainbow,  brook  and  steelhead  trout 
should  hardly  be  placed  in  waters  where  the  temperature  of  the 
water  rises  above  70  degrees.  Application  for  fish  should  be  made 
to  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  Washington,  D.  C.  Many  states  also 
maintain  fish  hatcheries  and  supply  fish  free  for  stocking  streams 
and  ponds  in  the  state. 


INSTALLING   A   WATER    POWER    PLANT  127 


CHAPTER  XIV 
INSTALLING  A  WATER  POWER  PLANT 

/^OMMON  sense  covers  practically  everything  there  is  to  know 
^^  in  putting  in  a  home  or  small  town  power  plant.  Situations 
vary  so  widely  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  detailed  directions  that 
are  not  covered  by  plain  reasoning,  because  the  mechanism  of 
water  power  apparatus  is  so  simple  and  because  water  in  motion 
has  but  one  chief  attribute  to  be  controlled,  the  well  known  char- 
acteristics of  running  down  hill.  There  is  perhaps  only  one  general 
rule  that  is  appropriate  here,  and  that  is  to  be  sure  that  the  tail 
race  takes  the  water  off  quickly  from  the  discharge  from  the  turbine 
wheel.  Water  in  the  tail  race,  should  not  be  allowed  to  back  up 
around  the  end  of  the  discharge  pipe,  for  in  so  doing  it  will  impede 
the  discharge  and  the  discharge  in  turn  will  impede  the  wheel  and 
result  in  loss  of  head  and  consequent  loss  of  power.  Wherever  re- 
quired we  will  gladly  furnish  plans  and  full  directions.  The  smaller 
wheels  are  shipped  whole  and  ready  to  set  in  place.  The  larger 
wheels  are  so  plainly  marked  and  their  purpose  and  place  so 
quickly  apparent  that  no  time  need  be  lost  by  assembling  them 
with  inexperienced  hands.  Setting  up  a  grain  binder  is  much  more 
intricate  and  complex  task  than  installing  a  water  wheel. 

On  page  128  is  a  diagram  of  the  small  home  power  plant  and 
machine  shop  previously  pictured.  The  turbine  wheel  at  the 
bottom  is  connected  by  a  quarter-turn  belt  to  the  line  shaft  at  the 
top.  The  line  shaft  in  turn  is  belted  to  an  electric  generator  at 
the  left,  the  picture  showing  position  of  storage  battery  and  switch- 
board. In  the  center  the  line  shaft  drives  a  pump  and  at  the 
right,  a  wood  saw.  Other  machines  could  be  belted  to  the  line 
shaft  by  using  the  same  pulley  wheels  on  the  same  shaft  and  sup- 
plying longer  belts  or  by  the  addition  of  more  pulleys.  The  small 
stand  and  wheel  at  its  top  marked  "gate  wheel"  control  the  turbine 
wheel  gates. 


128 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


DIAGRAM    OF    INSTALLATION    OF    A    HOME    POWER    PLANT 

The  diagram  on  page  129  shows  the  wheel  pit  of  the  same 
home  power  plant.  The  wheel  is  supported  by  two  wooden 
beams  on  a  concrete  base,  which  also  supports  the  wheel  pit. 
You  will  notice  that  the  dead  water  in  the  wheel  pit  rises  only  a 
short  distance  about  the  end  of  the  discharge*  of  the  wheel  at  E. 
M  shows  the  gates  of  the  wheel,  and  inside  the  case  at  A  is  the 
mechanism  that  works  the  gates  and  which  is  attached  to  the 
coupling  at  17  and  18  and  extends  out  through  the  water-filled  wheel 
pit  through  a  packing  gland  at  15  to  the  beveled  gear  at  14  which 
connects  at  13  with  a  cogwheel  that  transmits  to  the  gate  mechan- 
ism every  turn  of  the  hand  wheel  at  8,  which  is  mounted  on  a  stand 
in  the  power  plant.  The  diagram  is  made  for  reference  and  di- 
rections in  the  taking  of  measurements.  The  turbine  wheel  is 
coupled  to  the  driving  shaft  of  the  pulley  by  the  coupling  at  2  and 
passes  out  of  the  wheel  pit  through  a  packing  gland  that  prevents 
leaking. 

A  man  may  have  a  complete  "ready  made"  power  plant,  in- 
cluding water  wheel,  flume,  penstock,  gate,  gate  hoist,  trash  rack, 
forebay,  dam  and  all  shipped  complete  and  ready  to  be  assembled 


INSTALLING    A    WATER    POWER    PLANT 

[HH 


129 


DIAGRAM  OF  TURBINE  WHEEL  PIT  INSTALLATION 

in  its  designed  place  on  his  brook,  creek  or  river  power  site,  just 
as  he  may  buy  a  suit  of  clothing  all  ready  to  wear.  On  page  130 
is  pictured  the  source  of  the  water  power  plant's  power.  In  the 
left  background  at  A  is  the  dam.  In  the  foreground  at  B  is  the 
forebay.  C  is  the  trash  rack  and  D  the  gate  hoist  to  control  the 
flow  of  water  into  the  penstock  E.  When  this  gate  is  closed  the 
penstock  E  is  emptied  by  opening  the  gates  of  the  wheel,  in  which 
case  it  is  frequently  an  advantage  to  have  the  little  air  inlet  valve 
F  in  the  penstock  to  let  air  into  the  penstock  automatically,  thus 
relieving  the  penstock  of  outside  air  pressure,  as  the  draining  of  the 
penstock  naturally  creates  a  vacuum  within  the  penstock.  Such 
a  vacuum  would  be  a  heavy  strain  on  any  type  of  construction,  but 
in  this  case  the  simple  little  air  inlet  valve  relieves  the  pressure 
immediately.  This  picture  shows  an  ideal  arrangement  for  the 
home  or  small  town  power  plant.  It  has  every  practical  con- 
venience and  refinement  that  the  huge  water  power  plants  have. 


130 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


THE  INTAKE  OF  A  TOWN  OR  HOME  POWER  PLANT 

The  trash  rack  shown  in  the  picture  at  C,  and  reproduced  in  a 
small  sectional  view  on  this  page  is  a  sturdy  barrier  between  the 
whole  plant  and  prevents  damage  to  intake,  flume,  penstock  or 

any  part  of  the  plant.  Trash  racks  are 
necessary  whether  to  keep  out  leaves 
and  light  trash  or  to  protect  from  ice  or 
the  heavy  debris  of  high  water.  Home- 
made trash  racks  frequently  are  very 
efficient  and  all  that  is  necessary;  but 
it  must  not  be  presumed  that  the  trash 
rack  made  by  even  a  skilled  carpenter 
can  be  compared  with  the  expert  make 
that  has  grown  through  study  and 
experience,  just  as  the  modern  dam 
has  developed  from  an  over-large  and 
unsafe  pile  of  material  to  a  compara- 
tively small  and  safe  structure  of  technical  design.  The  back 
bar  trash  rack  shown  in  this  picture  is  a  stronger  wall  and  yet  lets 
more  water  through  than  is  possible  with  a  homemade  trash  rack. 
Trash  racks  are  designed  for  different  peculiarities  in  canals, 
flumes  and  penstocks.  They  are  set  at  various  angles  to  meet 
different  conditions  and  we  shall  be  glad  to  advise  water 
power  plant  owners  fully  on  this  small  particular  also. 


A  SECTION  OF  A  TRASH  RACK 

AND  AN  UNBREAKABLE  STEEL 

TRASH     RACK    RAKE     BEING 

USED 


INSTALLING    A    WATER    POWER    PLANT 


SINGLE  GEAR  GATE  HOIST 


The  single  gear  gate  hoist  is  a  simple  and  perhaps  as  com- 
plete a  device  as  the  small  plant  may  need.  The  perpendicular 
stem  attaches  to  the  gate  and  the  gate  is  raised  or  lowered  by 
working  the  hand  lever,  as  shown  in  the  lower  picture  on  this  page. 
Wood  gates  are  made  of 
hard  pine,  oak  or  chestnut 
and  in  any  size  necessary. 
Like  the  dam  and  the  trash 
rack,  they  have  been  devel- 
oped to  have  strength  where 
strength  is  necessary  and 
they  have  eliminated  all  un- 
necessary weight  and  ma- 
terial. The  well  designed 
gate,  whether  of  wood  or 
metal,  has  no  unnecessary 
waste  of  material,  for  every 

ounce  of  clumsiness  costs 
money  and  it  further 
detracts  from  the  ease 
and  quickness  that 
should  belong  in  the  op- 
eration of  any  gate.  The 
picture  herewith  is  of  a 
very  large  gate  for  a 
canal,  dam,  or  flume. 
The  small  opening  in  the 
center  is  a  "filler  gate" 
to  make  the  gate  quicker 
and  easier  of  operation. 
Small  gates  do  not  need 
"fillers."  A  small  pow- 
er plant  may  get  along 
very  satisfactorily  with- 
out a  gate  at  the  intake, 
for  the  closing  of  the 
wheel  gates  stops  the 
flow  of  water  through 

A   LARGE   GATE   FOR   DAMS,   CANALS         the    wheel.      They    may 
OR  FLUMES 


132  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

not  be  wholly  necessary,  perhaps,  but  are  very  convenient  pieces 
of  equipment  to  have.  But  the  trash  rack,  either  homemade 
or  of  expert  design,  is  an  essential.  On  the  following  pages 
are  pictures  of  several  types  of  metal  gates  and  of  gate  hoists, 
made  for  large  power  installations.  The  small  home  or  town 
water  power  plant  is  blessed  by  not  having  to  install  such  heavy 
equipment,  which  is  shown  here  as  a  small  indication  of  how 
far  water  power  development  has  reached  toward  perfection 
in  all  things.  Big  industries  with  all  best  technical  advice 
necessary  in  choosing  the  form  of  power  that  is  cheapest  and 
best  for  their  use  have  made  this  perfection  possible  by  choosing 
water  power. 

Only  a  few  water  power  accessories  are  mentioned  here  but  we 
design  and  manufacture  everything  for  water  power  plants,  for 
the  most  economic  and  durable  construction  and  operation  of  those 
plants.  Many  accessories  and  refinements  are  not  necessary  in 
the  small  plant,  where  they  might  be  quite  essential  in  the  larger 
plant.  They  are  mentioned  here  because  pride  of  ownership  and 
the  general  satisfaction  of  "dressing  up"  a  plant  frequently  adds 
to  the  convenience  they  afford.  We  have  a  special  gear  depart- 
ment for  furnishing  gears  of  the  best  proportion  and  durability, 
and  carry  a  full  stock  of  maple  from  which  to  make  either  machine 
cut  or  handdressed  cogs  and  keys  for  mortise  gears,  in  case  gear 
transmission  is  used  in  the  water  power  plant. 


INSTALLING    A    WATER    POWER    PLANT 


133 


AT  THE  RIGHT — A  GATE  FOR 

SQUARE  OR  RECTANGULAR 

OPENINGS 


AT    THE   LEFT A  QuiCK-AcTING  GATE 

VALVE,  SIZES  14  INCHES   AND   UNDER 


AT  THE 
RIGHT— A 

WORM 
WHEEL  AND 
SPUR  GEAR 
GATE  HOIST 


134  POWER   DEVELOPMENT   OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


WORM   WHEEL   AND    WORM   GEAR   GATE   OPERATING    DEVICE 


A   METAL  GATE   FOR   ROUND   OR   SQUARE   OPENINGS 


INSTALLING    A    WATER    POWER    PLANT  135 

Where  a  town  or  village,  or  private  individuals  in  either, 
contemplate  bettering  the  whole  community  by  utilizing  a  nearby 
stream  to  furnish  light  and  power,  to  supply  a  water  works  system 
and  fire  protection,  a  turbine  wheel,  or  a  pair  oi  wheels,  an  electric 
generator  and  a  rotary  pump  are  all  the  machinery  necessary. 


THE  ROTARY  PUMP  AFFORDS  DEPENDABLE  WATER  SUPPLY  FOR  TOWN  AND 
INDUSTRIA*L  WATER  WORKS  SYSTEMS  AS  WELL  AS  AMPLE  FIRE  PROTECTION 

The  turbine  wheel  will  provide  all  the  power  needed  to  operate 
generator  and  pump  with  no  expense  for  fuel  and  at  practically  no 
maintenance  or  repair  cost.  It  may  be  connected  directly  to 
pump  and  generator  or  geared  or  belted  to  them.  If  the  water  to 
supply  the  water  works  system  is  a  spring  some  distance  from  the 
stream  supplying  the  power,  the  rotary  pump  may  be  installed  at 
the  spring  and  operated  by  an  electric  motor  connected  by  two 
wires  with  the  generator  in  the  power  plant.  The  picture  on  the 


136  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

preceding  page  shows  a  pump  for  town,  factory,  or  mill  water  sup- 
ply and  fire  protection.  It  is  the  most  capable  and  lasting  type  of 
rotary  pump  design  and  combines,  with  large  capacity,  force  to 
deliver  the  water  under  high  pressure.  It  probably  requires  less 
attention  than  any  other  kind  of  pump  made.  Its  history  has 
been  a  constant  development  of  improvement  for  more  than  thirty 
years  in  which  we  have  been  making  rotary  pumps.  It  was  at 
first  designed  to  meet  the  very  rigid  requirements  of  fire  under- 
writers in  a  pump  for  fire  protection  in  large  mills  and  factories 
where  huge  volumes  of  water  might  be  wanted  at  any  moment  and 
under  heavy  pressure.  Some  years  ago  a  New  York  state  mill 
conceived  the  idea  of  using  the  pump  for  a  dual  purpose,  to  supply 
the  town  with  water  as  well  as  to  protect  the  mills  from  fire.  It 
was  found  to  work  so  well  in  this  double  duty  that  other  pumps 
have  since  been  installed  solely  for  town  water  works  or  for  such 
dual  purposes.  Town  or  village  officers  considering  a  pump  for  a 
water  works  system  should  investigate  the  capabilities  of  the 
rotary. pump.  The  type  of  pump  shown  here  has  never  failed  to 
live  up  to  entirety  the  constantly  more  exacting  requirements  of 
the  fire  underwriters,  who  never  yet  have  failed  to  accept  the  pump 
as  meeting  all  their  high  standards.  There  could  hardly  be  a 
better  recommendation  for  a  pump  than  this  record. 

Perhaps  the  cheapest  arrangement  for  using  water  power  in 
the  home  is  to  build  a  small  structure  above  a  turbine  wheel  pit 
and  place  in  that  building  all  the  machinery  to  be  operated.  In 
this  way  the  wheel's  power  would  be  utilized  without  the  necessity 
of  buying  an  electric  motor  to  operate  a  machine  that  was  some 
distance  from  the  power  plant.  Frequently  it  is  not  convenient 
to  have  such  a  combination  of  power  plant  and  machine  shop,  so 
the  power  plant  houses  only  an  electric  plant  and  its  power  is 
transmitted  to  any  point  by  means  of  wires.  For  example,  a  saw, 
shown  in  the  picture  on  page  137  may  be  a  mile  or  more  fromithe 
power  plant  and  be  operated  by  the  electric  motor,  shown  in  the 
background  of  the  picture.  The  same  motor  in  turn  could  be 
belted  to  any  other  machine  within  reasonable  range  of  the  motor's 
capacity.  The  pump  at  the  well  could  be  similarly  operated  and 
the  operation  of  all  the  stationary  machinery  about  the  place, 
cream  separators,  ensilage  cutters,  feed  mills,  or  even  the  separator 


INSTALLING    A    WATER    POWER    PLANT 


137 


of  a  threshing  machine,  provided  the  power  plant  and  the  necessary 
motor  were  large  enough  to  handle  them.  In  the  household  one 
or  more  small  motors  could  do  duty  in  relieving  much  of  the 
drudgery  that  goes  with  churning,  washing,  sweeping  and  other 


WOOD  SAW  OPERATED  WITHOUT  COST  FOR  POWER  THROUGH  ELECTRIC  MOTOR 
THAT  DERIVES  ITS  CURRENT  FROM  A  HOME  WATER  POWER  PLANT 

unending  tasks.  But  for  sawing  wood  and  pumping  water  alone 
the  power  plant  is  a  paying  investment,  to  say  nothing  of  the  extra 
convenience  and  pleasure  of  having  electric  light,  heat,  and  power, 
as  the  sorely  beset  Hivites  could  assert  if  they  were  present  to 
testify. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  some  thousands  of  years  ago  the 
Hivites,  conquered,  were  the  professional  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water.  They  didn't  choose  their  calling.  It  was 
thrust  upon  them.  That  was  in  a  day  when  being  mean  to  some- 
body was  one  of  the  highest  and  most  practiced  arts.  The  princes 
of  the  congregation  in  looking  about  for  a  particularly  mean  way 
of  being  mean  to  the  conquered  Hivites  decided  that  punishment 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


by  death  was  too  easy.     So  they  made  the  Hivites  hewers  of  wood 
and  drawers  of  water. 

The  question  naturally  is,  "Oh,  why  be  a  Hivite,  when  the 
brook  across  the  pasture  calls  to  you  to  put  an  end  to  that  form  of 
slavery  or  drudgery?" 


Six    FORMS    OF   THE   MOST    MODERN    HOUSEHOLD    CON- 
VENIENCES     THAT      THE     HOME     WATER     POWER     PLANT 

MAKES  POSSIBLE  AND  THAT  WILL  MAKE    ANY    COUNTRY 

HOME    SUPERIOR    IN    CONVENIENCES    TO    THE    AVERAGE, 

MODERN  CITY  HOME 


APPENDIX  139 


APPENDIX 

READY  INFORMATION  COMPILED  TO  AID  IN  REALIZING  THE 
NATION'S  GREATEST  CHANCE  FOR  UTILIZING  ITS  GREATEST  WATER 
POWER,  THE  COMBINED  OPPORTUNITIES  OF  THE  HOME  AND  SMALL 
TOWN  WATER  AND  ELECTRIC  PLANT. 

FROM  THE  SCIENTIFIC  AMERICAN 
OF  JULY  21,  1917 

Our  large  water  power  possibilities  are  being  developed  perhaps 
as  rapidly  as  is  justifiable,  all  things  considered.  The  small  powers, 
where  the  rights  involved  all  lie  within  the  title  of  one  or  two  property 
holders,  are  free  from  the  legal  troubles  which  so  often  hamper  the 
larger  projects;  but  their  development  seems  almost  prohibited  by  the 
necessarily  high  cost  of  determining  all  the  engineering  values  involved. 
Nevertheless,  with  the  rapid  development  of  uses  for  the  small  motor 
in  driving  almost  every  contrivance  about  the  farm,  and  the  increasing 
production  of  labor  saving  contrivances  to  be  driven,  a  source  of  small 
power  for  isolated  places  is  becoming  daily  more  imperative.  There 
are,  of  course,  small  engines  that  are  partly  filling  this  growing  de- 
mand, but  where  water  power  is  available  it  has  obvious  advantages. 
But  how  to  apply  it  effectively  is  a  matter  involving  so  many  questions 
which,  while  engineering  commonplaces,  are  as  Greek  to  the  farmer  and 
rural  resident,  that  the  small  water  power  lags  far  behind  its  bigger 
brother  in  making  itself  useful.  The  solution  of  the  problem  would 
seem  to  be  along  the  line  of  standardization  ....  From  the  point 
of  view  of  one  who  is  familiar  with  the  incredible  cost  reductions 
effected  by  standardization  in  construction,  the  stream  must  be  adapted 
to  a  standard  dam,  even  if  the  dam  chosen  be  half  or  twice  as  large  as 
good  engineering  would  demand.  Why  should  not  our  smaller  streams 
be  systematically  surveyed  and  classified  with  respect  to  their  power 
possibilities?  Why  should  we  not  have  half  a  dozen  or  a  dozen 
standard  turbines,  both  vertical  and  horizontal,  of  various  horse- 
power  from  perhaps  two  to  three  to,  say,  ten  or  twelve,  with  standard 
gear  change  apparatus  and  other  standard  accessories,  perhaps  even 

with    standard   dams    and    spillways?     With   such 

standardization  seriously  put  before  the  owners  of  our  little  water 
powers,  surely  it  would  not  be  long  before  these  would  become  in 
truth  our  great  water  powers,  dwarfing  in  extent  and  value  of  their 
application  the  combined  forces  of  a  dozen  Niagaras. 


X 

I40 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 


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APPENDIX 
CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


X 

141 


HEAD.  || 

9  INCH  WHEEL. 

o 

< 
w 
X 

9  INCH  WHEEL. 

a 
< 
w 

9  INCH  WHEEL. 

19  Square  Inch  Vent 

19  Square  Inch  Vent. 

19  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  ft. 

Min 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.ft. 

Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

78 
1.09 
1  47 
1  82 
223 

127 
142 
155 
168 
179 

258 
289 
316 
342 
365 

46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

31.11 
32.11 
33.18 
34.22 
35.23 

430 
435 
440 
444 
449 

876 
885 
895 
904 
913 

88 
89 
90 
91 
92 

82.00 
83.44 

84.88 
86.32 
87.76 

594 
597 
600 
604 
H08 

1211 
1218 
1225 
1231 
1238 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 

265 
3.12 
3.58 
4.13 
4.63 

190 
201 
210 
220 
229 

387 
408 
428 
447 
466 

51 
52 
53 
54 
55 

36.27 
37.47 
38.43 
39.47 
1  40.54 

453 

458 
462 
466 
471 

922 

931 
940 
949 
958 

93 
94 
95 
96 
97 

89.24 
90.72 
92.20 
93.68 
95.21 

611 
615 
618 
622 
625 

1245 
1252 
1258 
1265 
1272 

14 
15 
16 
17 
18 

5.19 
5.72 
6.33 
6.95 
7.59 

237 
246 
254 
266 
269 

483 
500 
516 
532 

548 

56 
57 
58 
59 
60 

41.78 
42.88 
44.02 
45.18 
46.08 

475 
479 
483 

487 
491 

966 
975 
983 
992 
1000 

98 
99 
10O 
101 
102 

96.74 
98.17 
99.60 
101.12 
102.64 

628 
631 
634 
638 
641 

1278 
1284 
1291 
1298 
1304 

19 
20 
21 
22 
23 

8.20 
8.90 
9.49 
10.25 
10.97 

277 
284 
290 
297 
304 

563 
577 
591 
606 
619 

61 
62 
63 
64 
65 

47.54 
48.65 
49.86 
51.03 
5223 

496 
500 
503 
508 
512 

1008 
1016 
1025 
1033 
1041 

103 
104 
105 
106 
107 

104.16 
105.68 
107.06 
108.44 
109.82 

645 
648 
651 
654 
657 

1310 
1316 
1322 
1329 
1336 

24 
25 
26 
27 
28 

11.71 
1245 
13.21 
13.90 
1469 

311 
317 
324 
330 
336 

633 
646 
658 
671 
683 

66 
67 
68 
69 
70 

53.01 
5461 
55.92 
57.23 
58.37 

516 
519 
523 
527 
531 

1049 
1060 
1066 
1073 
1080 

108 
1O9 
110 
111 
112 

111.20 
112.78 
114.36 
115.99 
117.52 

660 
663 
666 
669 
672 

1343 
1349 
1354 
1360 
1366 

29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 

15.50 
1640 
17.60 
17.90 
18.26 

341 
347 
353 
359 
365 

695 
707 
719 
730 

742 

71 
72 
73 

74 
75 

59.61 
60.91 
62.14 
6345 
64.76 

535 
539 
542 
547 
550 

1083 
1096 
1103 
1112 
1118 

113 
114 
115 
116 
117 

1,19.14 
120.76 
122.38 
124.00 
125.80 

675 

678 
680 
682 
685 

1372 
1378 
1384 
1391 
1397 

19.72 
20.50 
21.25 
22.16 
23.07 

370 
375 
381 
386 
391 

753 

764 

775 
785 
796 

76 

77 
78 
79 
80 

6603 
67.36 
68.69 
69.96 
71.00 

553 
557 
560 
564 
568 

1127 
1133 
1140 
1148 
1155 

118 
116 
120 
121 
122 

127.60 
129.40 
131.20 
133.60 
136.00 

688 
691 
694 
697 
699 

1404 
1409 
1414 
1420 
1426 

39 
40 
41 
42 
43 

23.98 
24.92 

25.89 
26.84 

27.82 

396 

401 
406 
411 
416 

806 
817 
827 
83? 

847 

81 
82 
83 
84 
85! 

72.67 
74.03 
75.40 

76.84 
78.14 

571 
575 

578 
582 
585 

1162 
1169 
1176 
1183 
1190 

123 
124 
125 
126 
127 

138.40 
140.80 
142.65 
144.50 
147.65 

701 
704 
705 
708 
711 

1432 
1438 
1443 
1449 
1454 

44j|  28.78 
45|l  29.75 

421 
427 

857  l|86 
866  |!87 

79.44 
80.91 

588 
592 

1197 
1204 

128 
129 

148.20 
148.70 

716 

721 

1460 
1466 

142  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


A 

•< 
w 

a 

12  IN.  WHEEL  No.  2. 

12  IN.  WHEEL  No.  1. 

15  INCH  WHEEL. 

28  Square  Inch  Vent. 

38  Square  Inch  Vent. 

57  Square  Inch.  yent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Fjb. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

4 
5 

1.16 
1.63 

187 
203 

207 
237 

1.57 
2.19 

254 

284 

207 
234 

2.36 
3.29 

381 
426 

179 
189 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

2.17 
2.61 
3.32 
3.95 
4.64 

229 

247 
264 
280 
296 

254 
269 

282 
301 
319 

2.94 
3.64 
4.46 
5.30 
tf.24 

311 
336 
359 
381 
402 

254 
269 
282 
301 
319 

4.34 
5.47 
,6.69 
7.96 
936 

466 
504 
539 
571 
603 

207 
224 
238 
253 
266 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

5.34 
6.09 
6.89 

7.72 
8.52 

310 
324 
337 
350 
362 

334 
347 
362 
376 
389 

7.17 
8.20 
9.26 
10.38 
11.45 

421 

440 
458 
475 
492 

334   1 
347 
362 
376 

389 

10.79 
12.30 
13.90 
15.58 
17.17 

632 
659 
687 
712 
738 

280 
292 
304 
315 
326 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

9.41 
10-34 
11.28 
12.20 
13.24 

374 

386 
398 

408 
418 

402 
414 
426 
439 
450 

12.66 
13.90 
15.19 
16.40 

17.80 

508 
523 
539 
554 
568 

402 
414 
426 
439 
450 

18.99 
20.90 
22.79 
24.60 
26.70 

762 
785 
808 
830 
852 

337 
347 
357 
367 
376 
^86" 
395 
402 
411 
417 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

14.16 
15.25 
16.29 
17.38 
18.51 

428 
439 
448 
458 
468 

462 
472 
483 
494 
504 

18.99 
20.50 
21.94 
23.42 
24.90 

582 
595 
609 
622 
635 

462 
472 
483 
494 
504 

28.49 
30.73 
32.91 
34.90 
37.39 

873 
893 
1913 
933 
952 

36 
27 
28 
29 
30 

19.49 
20.69 
21.85 
23.17 
24.35 

477 
486 
495 
503 
512 

514 
523 
534 
544 
553 

26.42 
27.81 
29.38 
31.10 

32.80 

648 
660 
672 
683 
695 

514 
523 
534 
544 
553 

39.60 
41.71 
44.09 
46.74 
49.20 

971 
990 
1008 
1026 
1043 

427 
436 
445 
454 
461 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

25.46 
26.65 
27.94 
29.21 
30.29 

521 
529 
538 
545 
553 

562 
571 

580 
588 
596 

34.23 
35.80 
27.53 
3944 
41.00 

707 
718 
730 
740 
751 

562 
571 

580 
"588 
596 

51.35 
53.71 
56.30 
58.16 
61.51 

1060 
1077 
1094 
1110 
J126 

467 
476 
484 
490 
497 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

31.42 
32.78 
34.14 
35.48 
37.00 

562 
569 

577 
585 
592 

604 
612 
620 
628 
636 

42.50 
44.32 
46.14 
47.97 
49.85 

762 

772 
783 
793 
803 

604 
612 
620 
628 
636 

63.77 
66.51 
69.20 
71.97 

74.78 

1143 
1159 
1174 
1190 
1204 

504 
511 
518 
324 
530 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

38.75 
40.10 
41.62 
42.27 
44.24 

602 
610 
618 
625 
633 

644 
652 
660 
668 
676 

51.79 
53.69 
55.62 
57.56 
59.50 

813 
823 
833 
843 

854 

644 
652 
660 
668 
676 

77.65 

90.54 
83.44 
86.31 
89.18 

1219 
1235 
1249 
1263 
1278 

536 
543 
549 
556 
563 

APPENDIX 
CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


'43 


a 
< 
u 
X 

12  IN.  WHEEL  No.  2. 

12  IN.  WHEEL  No.  1. 

15  INCH  WHKEL. 

28  Square  Inch  Vent. 

38  Square  Inch  Vent. 

57  Square  Inch  Vent 

Horse     ,Cu.  Ft. 
Power.    1  Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

46 
47 
48 

49 
50 

4583 
47.33 
48.90 
50.42 
51  87 

637 
643 
648 
655 
662 

684 
692 
700 
708 
717 

62.23 
64.23 
66.36 
68.44 
70.47 

861 
871 
880 
888 
898 

684 
692 
700 
708 
717 

9335 
96.34 
99.56 
102.66 
105.71 

1292 

1306 
1820 
1333 
1347 

570 
576 
582 
589 
596 

51 
52 
53 
54 
55 

53.40 
55.06 
5C.65 
58.24 
59.79 

668 
675 
681 
687 
694 

726 
732 
740 
748 
756 

72.55 
74.94 
76.86 
78.  04 
81.08 

907 
916 
924 
933 
942 

726 

732 
740 
748 
756 

108.67 
112.14 
115.36 
118.56 
121.93 

1360 
1374 
1386 
1399 
1412 

603 
610 
616 
622 
628 

56 
57 
58 
59 
60 

61.56 
6321 

64.88 
i     6656 
68.27 

700 
706 
713 
719 
725 

764 

772 
780 
787 
794 

83.57 
85.77 
88.04 
90.37 
92.16 

950 
959 
967 
975 
983 

764 

772 
780 
787 
794 

125.25 
128.67 
132.05 
135.56 
138.97 

1425 
1433 
1451 
1463 
1475 

634 
640 
646 
652 
658 

61 

62 
63 
64 
65 

70.06 
71.70 
73.47 
75.20 
76.97 

732 
737 
743 

748 
754 

802 
810 
818 
826 
832 

95.08 
97.31 
99.72 
102.06 
104.46 

993 
1000 
1007 
1016 
1024 

802 
810 
818 
826 
832 

142.62 
145.37 
149.57 
153.12 
156.70 

1489 
1500 
1512 
1522 
1535 

664 
670 
675 
681 
686 

66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 

78.72 
80.51 
82.33 
83.84 
85.98 

760 
766 

772 
777 
783 

840 
848 
857 
865 
873 

10(508 
109.21 
111.84 
114.47 
116.75 

1032 
1039 
1(47 
1055 
1063 

840 
848 
857 
865 
873 

160.25 
163.97 
167.77 
171.32 
175.15 

1548 
1559 
1571 
1582 
1594 

692 
698 
703 
701) 
714 

87.74 
89.76 
91.60 
93.51 
95.43 

788 
794 
799 
805 
810 

880 
888 
895 
904 
910 

119.23 
121.82 
124  29 
126.90 
129.52 

1070 
1078 
1085 
1093 
1100 

880 
888 
895 
904 
910 

178.87 
182.72 
186.41 
190.44 
193.29 

1605 
1610 
1627 
1639 
1650 

720 

72G 
732 

788 
743 

76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
85 

9735 
99.26 
101.17 
103.15 
105.10 

816 
821 
826 
832 
837 

917 
925 
933 
940 
947 

13207 
134.73 
137.38 
139.98 
142.64 

1107 
1114 
1121 
1129 
1136 

917 
925 
933 
940 
947 

198.07 
202.08 
206.05 
209.98 
213.36 

1660 
1671 
1682 
1693 
1705 

750 
755 
700 
76(5 
771 

107.07 
109.03 
111.10 
113.21 
115.16 

842 
847 
852 
858 
863 

954 
961 
968 
975 
982 

145.34 
148.07 
15080 
153.69 
156.28 

1143 
1150 
1157 
1164 
1171 

954 

961 
968 
975 
982 

217.90 
222.00 
225.75 
230.54 
234.43 

1715 
1725 
1735 
1746 

1756 
1766 
1777 

776 
782 
787 
793 
798 
803 
80** 

86 
87 

117.07 
119.24 

868 
873 

988 
995 

15H.87 
161  82 

1178 
1185 

988 
995 

238.33 
24273 

144  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


a 
< 
a 
£ 

18  INCH  WHEEL. 

21  INCH  WHEEL. 

24  INCH  WHEEL. 

89  Square  Inch  Vent. 

124  Square  Inch  Vent. 

159  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu  Ft. 
Min 

Rev. 

Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse     |Cu.  Ft. 
Power.    |   Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

4 
5 

3.68 
5.15 

595 
665 

134 
150 

5.13 

7.17 

829 
927 

122 
133 

6.58 
9.20 

1062 
1188 

110 
117 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

6.77 

8.52 
10.41 
12.46 
14.60 

738 
787 
841 
892 
941 

165 
176 
189 
201 
213 

9.44 
11.90 
14.54 
17.35 
20.36 

1020 
1096 
1172 
1242 
1311 

144 
153 
165 
176 
186 

12.12 
15.28 
18.67 
22.24 
26.12 

1301 
1406 
1503 
1593 
1681 

124 
130 
141 
151 
160 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

16.81 
19.18 
21.64 
24.19 
26.81 

986 
1030 
1072 
1112 
1152 

226 
236 
246 
256 
266 

23.46 
26.74 
30.22 
33.82 
37.31 

1374 
1435 
1494 
1549 
1604 

198 
207 
216 
225 
234 

30.11 
34.30 
38.80 
43.46 
47.92 

1762 
1840 
1916 
1986 
2057 

170 

178 
186 
194 
202 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

29.52 
32.22 
35.27 
38.13 
41.16 

1189 
1226 
1262 
1297 
1330 

276 
286 
294 
302 
310 

41.25 
45.21 
49.43 
53.25 

57.82 

1656 
1708 
1759 
1807 
1853 

242 
251 

258 
266 
273 

52.99 
58.20 
63.59 
68.31 
74.49 

2124 
2189 
2255 
2317 
2375 

209 
216 
223 
230 
236 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

44,28 
47.47 
50.75 
54.12 
57.56 

1363 
1394 
1423 
1454 
1484 

319 
327 
335 
342 
351 

61.88 
66.72 
71.28 
76.08 
80.93 

1898 
1942 
1985 
2028 
2071 

279 

287 
292 
299 
305 

79.49 
85.97 
91.81 
98.05 
104.30 

2434 
2490 
2547 
2601 
2657 

240 
246 
250 
256 
260 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

61.00 
64.53 
68.22 
71.91 
75.60 

1513 
1542 
1570 
1598 
1625 

357 
364 
372 
379 
385 

86.09 
90.46 
95.61 
100.14 
106.41 

2111 
2151 
2191 
2233 
2267 

311 
317 
323 
329 
385 

111.18 
116.40 
123.00 
130.38 
137.23 

2709 
2760 
2811 
2869 
2910 

265 
270 
274 

279 

284 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

79.45 
82.82 
86.92 
91.02 
95.12 

1652 
1679 
1705 
1730 
1756 

390 
398 
403 
410 
418 

111.35 
116.33 
121.99 
128.02 
133.38 

2304 
2342 
2379 
2413 
2449 

340 
345 
350 
356 
362 

143.26 
149.85 
157.07 
165.03 
171.65 

2957 
3005 
3053 
3097 
3142 

289 
293 
298 
302 
307 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

99.22 
103.32 
107.42 
112.34 
116.44 

1784 
1809 
1833 
1857 
1881 

423 
429 
434 
439 
444 

138.55 
144.33 
150.24 
156.55 
162.53 

2486 
2521 
2554 
2588 
2620 

367 
372 
377 

382 
387 

177.83 
185.55 
193.06 
200.76 
208.62 

3188 
3232 
3275 
3318 
3360 

312 
316 
320 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

120.54 
125.46 
129.56 
132.15 
137.54 

1904 
1928 
1950 
1973 
1996 

449 
455 
460 
465 
470 

168.57 
175.06 
181.16 
190.07 
196.29 

2653 
2686 
2717 
2749 
2780 

391 
396 
401 
408 
416 

216.61 
22467 
232.77 

237,87 
247.28 

3401 
3444 
3484 
3525 
3565 

333 
337 
342 
347 
352 

APPENDIX 
CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


'45 


0 
4 
w 

18  INCH  WHEEL 

21  INCH  WHEEL. 

24  INCH  WHEEL. 

89  Square  Inch  Vent 

124  Square  Inch  Vent. 

169  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu  Ft. 
Min 

Rev 
Min 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu  Ft 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 

14400 
148.63 
153.56 
158.37 
163.08 

2017 
2039 
2060 
2081 
2103 

475 
4SO 
435 
490 
496 

200.63 
207.08 
213.97 
220.65 
22721 

2810 
2841 
2871 
2899 
2930 

422 
428 
434 
439 
444 

257.25 
266.53 
278.36 
282.94 
291.84 

3603 
3643 
3681 
3717 
3757 

356 
360 
365 
369 
878 

167.87 
172.97 
17795 
182.90 
188.08 

2123 
2145 
2164 
2185 
2205 

502 
507 
513 
518 
524 

233.90 
240.99 
247.93 
254.81 
262.06 

2959 
2988 
3016 
3044 
3073 

449 
454 
459 
463 
468 

299.98 
809.03 
317.92 
326.72 
336.02 

3794 
3832 
3869 
3903 
3938 

378 
882 
886 
890 
394 

56 
57 
58 
59 
60 

193.32 
19847 
203.72 
209.10 
214.39 

2225 
2245 
2265 
2285 
2303 

530 
536 
541 
547 
552 

269.34 
276.50 

283.85 
291.34 
298.70 

3100 
3128 
3156 
3183 
3209 

473 

478 
483 
487 
491 

345.37 
354.57 
363.94 
373.57 
383.01 

3975 
4012 
4046 
4082 
4115 

898 
402 
407 
411 
415 

61 
62 
63 
64 
65 

220.02 
225.19 
230.72 
235.62 
241.73 

2326 
2342 
2360 
2378 
2398 

558 
563 
568 
573 

578 

306.54 
314.23 
321.46 
329.05 
336.79 

3240 
3262 
3288 
3315 
3340 

495 
499 
503 
507 
511 

391.05 
402.27 
412.19 
421.94 
481.86 

4155 
4183 
4217 
4249 
4283 

419 
428 
427 
430 
433 

66 
67 
68 
69 
70 

247.11 
252.96 
258.79 
264.31 
270.19 

2416 
2435 
2453 
2471 

2488 

583 
588 
593 
598 
602 

34444 
352.43 
360.56 
368.29 
376.44 

3367 
3391 
3417 
3442 
3467 

515 
519 
521 
525 
529 

441.66 
451.91 
462.27 
471.23 
482.50 

4317 
4349 
4382 
4414 
4446 

437 
440 
443 
446 
450 

711 
721 
73 
74 
75 

275.91 
281.88 
287.66 
293.67 
299.71 

2506 
2524 
2541 
2559 
2576 

607   1 
612 
617 
621 

626  | 

384.42 
392.73 
400.77 
409.17 
417.57 

3492 
3516 
3540 
3565 
3589 

533 
537 
541 
544 
548 

492.92 
500.42 
512.84 
524.66 
535.43 

4477 
4509 
4539 
4571 
4601 

453 
456 
460 
463 
467 

76 
77 
78 
79 
80 

305.60 
31224 
317.85 
323.92 
330.07 

2593 
2610 
2826 
2643 
2660 

631 
685 
640 
645 
649 

42579 
434.23 
442.85 
451.29 
459.88 

3612 
3636 
3659 
3683 
3707 

552 
555 
558 
561 
565 

545.97 
556.94 
567.85 
578.67 
589.68 

4632 
4662 
4692 
4722 
4752 

470 
473 
476 
480 
483 

81 
82 
83 

84 
85i 

336.81 
342.46 

348.85 
355.65 
861.64 

2677 
2693 
2709 
2726 
2742 

654 
659 
664 
669 
673 

468.57 
477.11 
486.03 
495.51 
503.80 

3730 
8752 
3775 
3798 
8820 

569 
672 
575 

578 
582 

600.83 
611.82 
623.23 
685.37 
646.07 

4782 
4811 
4840 
4870 
4899 

486 
490 
493 
498 
502 

86 

87 

367.65 
374.44 

2758 
2774 

678   II  512.23 
683   II  521.60 

3843 
3864 

586 
589 

656.82 
668.95 

4927 
4956 

506 
510 

146  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


a 

< 
w 
* 

27  INCH  WHEEL. 

30  INCH  WHEEL. 

33  INCH  WHEEL. 

200  Square  Inch  Vent. 

238  Square  Inch  Vent. 

292  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft.!   Rev. 
Min.  |   Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

4 
5 

8.22 
11.48 

1336 
1494 

96 
104 

9.86 
13.77 

1590 

1778 

82 
90 

12.08 
16.87 

1951 
2181 

7o 

82 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

15.13 
19.07 
23.31 

27.77 
32.61 

1636 
1768 
1890 
2040 
2114 

111 
117 
126 
136 
144 

18.14 
22.87 
27.95 
33.30 
1     39.10 

1947 
2104 
2249 
2385 
2516 

98 
104 
112 
121 
128 

22.19 
27.99 
34.23 
40.79 
47.98 

2389 
2581 
2759 
2926 
3087 

89 
96 
103 
110 
117 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

37.59 
42.82 
48.44 
54.25 
59.84 

2216 
2314 
2410 
2498 
2588 

152 
160 
167 
173 
181 

1    45.06 
51.35 
58.08 
65.05 
71.75 

2637 
2754 

2868 
2973 
3080 

134 
141 
148 
153 
160 

55.07 
62.88 
71.13 
79.67 

87.87 

3235 
3378 
3518 
3647 

3778 

123 
129 
135 
141 
147 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

66.15 
72.66 
79.39 
85.51 
93.01 

2672 
2754 
2836 
2914 
2988 

188 
194 
200 
206 
212 

79.32 
87.12 
95.19 
105.71 
111.52 

3180 
3277 
3375 
3468 
3556 

166 
172 
176 

182 
187 

97.15 
106.70 
116.59 
125.75 
136.58 

3891 
4021 
4141 
4254 
4362 

153 
159 
164 
170 
174 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

99.24 
107.24 
114.62 
122.39 
130.21 

3062 
3132 
3204 
3272 
3342 

216 
221 
225 
230 
235 

118.99 
128.38 
137.43 
146.73 
156.12 

3644 
3727 
3813 
3894 
3976 

191 
195 
200 
205 
210 

145.74 
157.25 
168.32 
179.71 
191.22 

4471 
4573 

4678 

4777 
4879 

178 
183 
186 
189 
193 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

138.28 
144.32 
153.55 
162.77 
171.32 

3408 
3472 
3536 
3596 
3660 

240 
245 
249 
253 

258 

165.38 
172.25 
184.10 
195.16 
205.42 

4046 
4132 
4208 
4279 
4355 

214 
218 
222 
227 
231 

202.56 
212.41 
225.47 
239.03 
251.63 
262.66 
274.74 
287.98 
302.54 
314.50 

4976 
5069 
5163 
5250 
5344 

197 
200 
204 
207 
210 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

178.85 
187.08 
196.09 
206.01 
214.21 

3720 

3780 
3840 
3896 
3952 

262 
266 
270 
275 
279 

214.45 
224.31 
235.12 
247.00 
256.78 

4427 

4498 
4570 
4626 
4703 

235 

238 
242 
247 
250 

5431 
5519 
5606 

5688 
5770 

213 
217 

220 
224 

228 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

222.08 
231.64 
241.02 
250.00 
260.46 

4010 
4066 
4120 
4174 
4226 

283 

287 
291 
295 
299 

t  266.27 

277.72 
288.99 
300.52 
312.30 

4772 
4839 
4903 
4967 
5029 

253 

256 
260 
263 
266 

326.13 
340.15 
353.96 
368.07 
382.50 

5855 
5936 
6015 
6094 
6170 

232 
230 
240 

«J 

270.47 
280.49 
290.60 
302.90 
312.91 

4276 
4310 
4375 
4434 
4484 

303 
307 
311 
315 
319 

324.33 
336.32 
348.43 
356.08 
367.83 

5091 
5155 
5215 
5276 
5336 

269 
272 
275 
271) 

284 

397.17 
411.91 
426.75 
442.12 
456.82 

6235 
6314 
6387 
6474 
6546 

250 
254 
257 
261 
265 

APPENDIX 
CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


c 

4 
X 

36  INCH  WHEEL. 

39  INCH  WHEEL. 

345  Square  Inch  Vent. 

404  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min 

Horse 
Power 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev 
Min 

I 

14.30 
19.97 

2305 
2577 

67 

74 

16.72 
23.36 

2699             61 
3018            68 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

26.24 
33.12 
40.52 

48.27 
56.86 

2822 
3050 
3260 
3457 
3647 

81 
87 
93 
102 
107 

30.74 

38.78 
47.40 
56.47 
66.62 

3305 
3578 
3818 
4048 
4270 

75 

81 
87 
93 
99 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

65.32 
74.41 
84.'18 
94.30 
104.00 

3823 
3992 
4157 
4309 
4464 

112 
118 
124 
129 
133 

76.42 
87.13 
98.50 
110.32 
121.72 

4476 
4674 

4868 
5046 
5228 

104 
109 
113 
120 
124 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

114.99 
126.28 
137.99 
148.79 
161.65 

4609 
4751 
4892 
5027 
5154 

139 
143 
147 
151 
156 

134.64 
147.75 
161.45 
174.14 
188.63 

5397 
5563 
5729 

5886 
6036 

129 
133 
137 
140 
145 

172.49 
186.11 
199.21 
212.69 
226.32 

5282 
5403 
5527 
5644 
5765 

160 
164 
168 
172 
176 

201.63 
217.14 
232.47 

247.78 
264.35 

6185 
6327 
6472 
6609 
6751 

148 
152 
156 
159 
163 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

239.74 
252.58 
266.85 
282.90 
297.83 

5879 
5989 
6100 
6203 
6314 

179 
182 
186 
189 
193 

281.28 
294.93 
311.18 
329.37 
348.22 

6884 
7013 
7143 
7264 
7393 

166 
169 
173 
176 
179 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

310.86 
325.17 
340.84 
358.09 
372.23 

6417 
6521 
'  6624 
6721 
6817 

196 
200 
203 
206 
209 

362.26 
879.31 
397.62 
416,50 
434.30 

7514 
7636 
7757 
78701 
7983 

182 
186 
189 
192 
195 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

385.99 
402.58 
418.92 
435.62 
452,70 

6917 
7014 
7107 
7200 
7290 

212 
215 
217 
220 
223 

451.45 
470.85 
489.95 
509.47 
529.46 

8100 
8213 
8322 
8431 
8540 

197 
199 
201 
204 
206 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

470.00 
487.50 
505.08 
516.16 
533.14 

7380 
7473 
7559 
7649 
7735 

226 
229 
232 
235 

238 

549.69 
570.16 
590.62 
611.42 
632.05 

8640 
8741 
8841 
8957 
9058 

208 
211 
214 
217 
220 

148  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


o 

•< 
w 

42  INCH  WHEEL. 

45  INCH  WHEEL. 

462  Square  Inch  Vent. 

506  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu    Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

4 
5 

19.14 
26.76 

3087 
3452 

56 
63 

20.70 
28.92 

3380 
3780 

51 

58 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

35.25 
44.43 
54.27 
64.67 
76.27 

3771 
4086 
4368 
4632 
4886 

69 
75 
80 
85 
91 

38.10 
47.99 
58.64 
69.92 
82.02 

4139 
4473 
4782 
5070 
5348 

65 
70 
75 

80 
86 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

87.53 
99.84 
112.81 
126.35 
139.44 

5122 
5348 
5570 
5773 
5977 

96 
101 
106 
110 
114 

94.55 
107.81 
121.62 
136.17 
150.59 

5606 
5854 
6097 
6320 
6548 

90 
95 
99 
103 
107 

16| 

17I 
18 

19 
20| 

154.08 
169.21 
184.91 
199.49 
215.62 

6176 
6365 
6555 
67a5 
6902 

118 
123 
126 
129 
133 

166.84 
182.44 
199.00 
215.62 
233.28 

6760 
6968 
7175 
7372 
7560 

111 
115 
118 
122 
125 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

230.77 
248.18 
265.73 

282.88 
302.3^ 

7073 
7235 
7401 
7558 
7720 

136 
140 
143 
147 
150 

249.66 
268,50 
287.49 
306.04 
327.07 

7747 
7924 
8106 
8278 
8455 

128 
131 
134 
137 
140 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

320.83 
337.28 
355.51 
375.83 
398.61 

7872 
8020 
8168 
8307 
8455 

153 
157 
160 
163 
165 

347.10 
364.88 
384.69 
406.60 
431.24 

8622 
8784 
8946 
9098 
9260 

143 
147 
150 
153 
155 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

413.66 
433.45 
454.41 
474.91 
496.37 

8593 
8732 
8870 
9000 
9129 

168 
171 
174 
176 

178 

447.54 
468.94 
491.60 
513.82 
537.02 

9412 
9563 
9715 
9857 
9999 

158 
161 
163 
165 
167 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

516.90 
539.11 
560.99 
583.30 
606.23 

9263 
9392 
9517 
9642 
9762 

180 
182 
185 
187 
189 

559.22 
583.26 
606.92 
630.34 
655.87 

10145 
10287 
10424 
10560 
10692 

169 
171 
174 
176 
1*8 

41 
42 
43 
44 
46 

629.39 
652.82 
676.17 
691.17 
714.02 

9882 
10007 
10122 
10242 
10358 

191 
193 
195 
197 
199 

680.93 
707.04 
731.76 
757.02 
781.86 

10822 
10962 
11082 
11217 
11345 

180 
182 
185 
187 
190 

APPENDIX 
CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


149 


c 
4 
H 

= 

|                      48  INCH  WHEEL. 

51  INCH  WHEEL. 

550  Square  Inch  Vent. 

645  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

I 

21.00 
31.05 

3674 
4109 

46 
52 

26.32 
36.90 

4309 
4818 

43 
50 

6 

7 
8 
9 
10 

40.90 
51.52 
62.97 
75.07 
88.06 

4499 
4862 
5196 
5511 
5814 

60 
66 
71 
75 

81 

48.46 
61.09 
74.25 
89.05 
104.30 

5376 
5702 
6095 
6463 
6818 

57 
63 
66 
71 
76 

ii 

12 
13 
14 
15 

101.14 
115.52 
130.52 
146.19 
161.66 

6094 
6364 
6628 
6870 
7117 

85 
89 
93 
97 
100 

120.37 
137.10 
154.81 
172.69 

191.88 

7147 
7463 

7772 
8054 
8346 

81 
85 
88 
91 
94 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

178.68 
195.86 
213.67 
231.42 
250.45 

7348 
7574 
7799 
8014 
8217 

103 
107 
111 
114 
117 

210.74 
231.24 
251.74 
273.06 
295.20 

8617 
8882 
9146 
9398 
9636 

98 
104 
108 
112 
114 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

268.03 
288.25 
308.64 
328.55 
341.85 

8421 
8613 
8811 
8998 
9191 

120 
122 
125 
128 
131 

317.36 
340.30 
364.08 
387.86 
412.46 

9875 
10101 
10333 
10552 
10778 

116 
118 
121 
124 
126 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

372.63 
391.73 
412.93 
436.50 
463.80 

9372 
9548 
9724 
9889 
10065 

134 
137 
140 
142 
145 

437.06 
462.48 
488.72 
514.96 
541.20 

10991 
11197 
11404 
11597 
11804 

129 
131 
133 
136 
138 

31 
32 
33 
34| 
35! 

480.45 
503.43 
527.76 
551.58 
576.52 

10230 
10395 
10560 
10714 
10868 

147 
150 
152 
154 
156 

569.08 
594.96 
624.84 
653.54 
683.06 

11997 
12191 
12384 
12464 
12745 

141 
143 
145 
147 
150 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

603.23 
626.15 
651.56 
678.34 
704.11 

11028 
11182 
11330 
11479 
11622 

158 
160 
162 
164 
166 

712.58 
742.10 
772.44 

802.78 
833.94 

12932 
13113 
13287 
13461 
13628 

152 
153 
155 
156 
158 

41 
42 

43 
44 
45 

739.02 
758.22 
785.58 
812.70 
839.53 

11770 
11913 
12051 
12194 
12331 

168 
170 
172 
174 
176 

874.09 
906.48 
938.10 
967.50 
995.48 

13797 
13971 
14133 
14300 
14454 

160 
162 
164 
166 
168 

150 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 
CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


c 
< 
M 

54  INCH  WHEEL. 

57  INCH  WHEEL. 

740  Square  Inch  Vent. 

886  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

Horse. 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

4 
5 

30.67 

42.84 

4943 
5528 

44 
49 

34.65 

48.40 

5584 
6245 

39 
44 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

56.44 
71.13 
86.95 
103.54 
121.58 

6053 
6542 
6993 
7415 

7822 

54 
60 
64 

68 

72 

63.76 
80.36 
98.21 
116.97 
137.36 

6838 
7390 
7900 
8377 
8836 

50 
56 
60 
64 
68 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

140.13 
159.67 
180.56 
202.26 
223.08 

8199 
8562 
8917 
9243 
9576 

76 
80 
83 
86 
89 

158.31 
180.39 
204.00 
228.50 
252.02 

9263 
9672 
10074 
10447 
10818 

71 

75 
78 
82 
84 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

246.66 
270.88 
295.99 
319.36 
346.73 

9886 
10190 
10493 
10782 
11056 

92 
95 
98 
101 
103 

278.66 
306.02 
334.39 
360.79 
391.71 

11169 
11512 
11854 
12180 
12490 

87 
90 
93 
95 
97 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

369.99 
399.20 
427.31 
456.23 
485.44 

11329 
11588 
11854 
12106 
12365 

106 
108 
111 
116 
117 

417.99 
450.99 
482.75 
515.40 
548.43 

12798 
13091 
13392 
13676 
13951 

100 
103 
106 
109 
111 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

514.23 
541.78 
572.36 
601.88 
635.96 

12609 
12846 
13083 
13305 
13542 

119 
121 
124 
126 

128 

580.90 
612.06 
646.09 
678.40 
715.28 

14245 
14512 
14780 
15031 
15299 

113 
115 
117 
119 
121 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

666.50 
697.00 
731.03 
767.09 
797.86 

13674 
13986 
14208 
14415 
14622 

130 
132 
134 
137 
139 

747.97 
782.25 
820.24 
861.32 
895.46 

15504 
15800 
16051 
16285 
16519 

123 
135 
127 
130 
132 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

827.93 
863.52 
898.55 
934.39 
971.00 

14837 
15044 
15244 
15444 
15636 

141 
143 
145 
147 

148 

^ 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

1008.14 
1045.66 
1083.37 
1107.11 
1142.91 

15829 
16028 
16213 
16406 
16591 

150 
151 
152 
153 
155 

APPENDIX 
CAPACITIES  HUNT-FRANCIS  TURBINES 


d 

I 

=. 

60  INCH  WHEEL. 

66  INCH  WHEEL. 

932  Square  Inch  Vent. 

1035  Square  Inch  Vent. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min 

Rev 
Min. 

4 
5 

38.63 
53.96 

6226 
6962 

34 

40 

42.90 
59.93 

6914 
7731 

29 
35 

6 

7 
8 
9 
10 

71.08 
89.59 
109.48 
130.41 
153.15 

7624 
8239 
8807 
9339 
9851 

46 
52 
56 
60 
£4 

78.94 
99.49 
121.58 
144.82 
170.14 

8466 
9149 
9781 
10371 
10940 

41 
48 
51 
55 
58 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

176.49 
201.11 
227.45 
254.74 
280.96 

10327 
10783 
11231 
11651 
12060 

66 
70 
74 

77 
80 

196.00 
223.33 
252.58 
282.90 
312.01 

11468 
11975 
12472 
12927 
13393 

61 
64 
68 
71 
73 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

310.66 
341.17 
372.79 
402.22 
436.69 

12452 
12834 
13216 
13579 
13924 

83 
86 
88 
90 
92 

344.99 
378.84 
413.99 
446.67 
484.96 

13828 
14252 
14676 
15080 
15463 

76 
79 

81 
83 
86 

21 
22 

23 
24 
25 

465.99 
502.78 
538.19 
574.57 
611.42 

14268 
14595 
14930 
15247 
15537 

95 
98 
100 
103 
105 

51749 
558.35 
595.67 
638.11 
678.96 

15846 
16208 
16580 
16932 
17294 

88 
90 
92 
94 
97 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

647.58 
682.35 
719.82 
754.92 
794.61 

15881 
16179 
16478 
16757 
17056 

107 
109 
111 
113 
115 

719.23 

757.81 
790.88 
835.35 
879.41 

17636 
17967 
18299 
18609 
18941 

99 
101 
103 
105 
107 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35| 

829.44 
867.51 
909.46 
955.55 
993.06 

17335 
17615 

17894 
18155 
18416 

117 
119 
121 
123 
125 

920.97 
963.09 
1008.26 
1054.10 
1101.11 

19251 
19561 
19872 
20162 
20452 

109 
111 
113 
115 

117 

If  desired  to  ascertain  the  power  developed,  and  the  amount  of  water 
used  under  higher  heads  than  indicated  in  the  foregoing  tables,  the  follow- 
iug  may  be  used  as  data  :— 

The  quantity  of  water  increases  as  the  square  root  of  the  head.  If  the 
head  is  increased  four  times,  on  the  same  wheel,  proximately  twice  the 
quantity  of  water  will  be  discharged,  but  the  power  will  be  increased  eight 
times. 


152 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


« 


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U     Pi 

a   o 


2  H 


CO 

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ft  M\ 


O  eS 
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.2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  2  2  2 


i-l  O*  CO  CO  <«*  "t«  •«*«  iO  CO  CO  CO  t-  l>  00  00  OS  OS  OS  O 


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.  2  2      222      2a2      2G2 

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CO        055OCO 


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43  43  43  43  43  43  43  £  43  4J  43  43  43  43  43  43  43  43  43 

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.2  .S  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  .2  5  .2  .2  .2  .2  5  .2 


APPENDIX 

CAPACITIES  HuNT-McCoRMiCK  TURBINES 


153 


0 

•< 

H 

= 

9  INCH  WHEEL.                12  INCH  WHEEL. 

16  INCH  WHEEL. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev.  II     Horee 
Min.  ||    Power. 

Cu.Ft.1  Rev. 
Min.  1  Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

1.5    204  297 


2.7 


355   223 


4.8    566   178 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

2.0 
2.6 
3.1 
3.7 
4.4 

223 
241 

258 
273 
288 

325 
351 
376 
398 
420 

3.5 
4.4 
5.4 
6.5 
7.6 

389 
420 
449 
476 
502 

244 
263 
282 
299 
315 

5.6 
7.1 

8.7 
10.3 
121 

620 
670 
716 
760 
801 

195 
211 
225 
239 
252 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

5.0 
5.7 
6.5 
7.2 
8.0 

302 
316 
329 
341 
353 

440 
460 
479 
497 
514 

8.8 
10.0 
11.2 
12.6 
13.9 

527 
550 
573 
594 
615 

330 
345 
359 
373 
386 

14.0 
15.9 
17.9 
20.0 
22.2 

840 
877 
913 
947 
981 

264 
276 

287 
298 
308 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

8.8 
9.7 
10.5 
11.4 
12.3 

365 
376 
387 
397 
408 

531 
547 
563 
579 
594 

15.4 
16.8 
18.8 
19.9 
21.5 

635 
655 
674 
692 
710 

398 
411 
422 
434 
446 

24.5 
26.8 
29.2 
81.7 
34.2 

1013 
1044 
1074 
1104 
1132 

319 
328 
388 
347 
356 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

13.3 
14.2 
15.2 
16.2 
17.2 

418 
428 
437 
447 
456 

608 
623 
637 
650 
664 

23.1 

24.8 
26.5 
28.2 
30.0 

728 
745 
762 
778 
794 

456 
467 

477 
488 
498 

36.8 
39.5 
42.2 
45.0 

47.8 

1160 
1188 
1214 
1240 
1266 

365 
374 
382 
390 
398 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

18.3 
19.3 
20.4 
21.5 
22.6 

465 
474 
482 
491 
499 

677 
690 
702 
715 
727 

31.8 
33.7 
35.6 
37.5 
39.4 

810 
825 
840 
855 
870 

508 
517 
527 
536 
545 

50.7 
53.7 
56.7 
59.8 
62.9 

1291 
1816 
1340 
1364 
1387 

406 
414 
421 
429 
436 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

23.8 
24.9 
26.1 
27.3 
28.5 

508 
516 
524 
532 
539 

739 

751 
763 

774 
785 

41.4 
43.4 
45.6 
47.6 
49.7 

884 
898 
912 
926 
940 

554 
563 
572 

581 
589 

66.0 
69.3 
72.5 
75.9 
79.2 

1410 
1432 
1455 
1476 
1498 

443 
451 
458 
464 
471 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

29.8 
31.0 
32.3 
33.5 
34.8 

547 
554 
562 
569 
577 

796 
807 
818 
829 
840 

51.8 
54.0 
56.2 
58.4 
60.7 

953 
966 
979 
992 
1004 

597 
606 
614 
622 
630 

82.6 
86.1 
89.6 
93.2 
96.8 

1519 
1640 
1561 
1581 
1601 

478 
484 
491 
497 
504 

154  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

CAPACITIES  HuNT-McCoRMiCK  TURBINES 


a 

< 
u 

K 

18  INCH  WHEEL. 

21  INCH  WHEEL 

24  INCH  WHEEL. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

6.3 


828  144 


8.9   1172   137 


11.7   1547   113 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

8.2 
10.4 
12.7 
15.1 
17.7 

908 
980 
1048 
1111 
1172 

158 
170 
182 
193 
203 

11.6 
14.7 
17.9 
21.4 
25.0 

1283 
1386 
1482 
1572 
1657 

150 
162 
173 
184 
194 

15.4 
19.4 
23.7 

28.2 
33.1 

1695 
1831 
1957 
2076 
2188 

124 
134 
143 
152 
160 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

20.4 
23.3 
26.2 
29.3 
32.5 

1229 
1283 
1336 
1386 
1435 

213 
223 

232 
241 
249 

28.9 
32.9 
37.1 
41.5 
460 

1738 
1815 
1889 
1960 
2029 

203 
212 
221 
229 
237 

38.1 
43.5 
49.0 
54.8 
60.7 

2295 
2397 
2495 
2589 
2680 

168 
175 
182 
189 
196 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

35.8 
39.2 
42.8 
46.4 
50.1 

1482 
1528 
1572 
1615 
1657 

257 
265 
273 

280 

288 

5.0.7 
55.5 
60.5 
65.6 
1   70.8 

2096 
2160 
2223 
2284 
2343 

245 
253 
260 
267 
274 

66.9 
73.3 
79.8 
86.6 
93.5 

2768 
2853 
2936 
3016 
3095 

202 
208 
214 
220 
226 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

53.9 

57.8 
61.8 
65.8 
70.0 

1698 
1738 
1777 
1815 
1852 

295 
302 
309 
315 
322 

76.2 

81.7 
87.3 
93.1 
99.0 

2401 
2457 
2513 
2567 
2620 

281 
287 
294 
300 
306 

100.6 
107.9 
115.3 
122.9 
130.7 

3171 
3246 
3318 
3390 
3460 

232 
237 
242 

248 
253 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

74.2 

78.5 
82.9 
87.4 
92.0 

1889 
1925 
1960 
1995 
2029 

328 
334 
340 
346 
352 

105.0 
111.1 
117.3 
123.6 
130.1 

2672 
2722 
2772 

2821 
2870 

312 
318 
324 
330 
336 

138.6 
146.7 
154.9 
163.3 
171.8 

3528 
3595 
3661 
3726 
3790 

258 
263 
267 
272 

277 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

96.6 
101.3 
106.1 
111.0 
115.9 

2063 
2096 
2128 
2160 
2192 

358 
364 
370 
375 
381 

136.6 
143.3 
150.1 
157.0 
163.9 

2917 
2964 
3010 
3055 
3100 

341 
347 
352 
357 
362 

180.5 
189.3 
198.2 
207.3 
216.5 

3853 
3914 
3975 
4035 
4094 

281 
286 
290 
295 
299 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

120.9 
126.0 
131.1 
136.4 
141.6 

2223 
2254 
2284 
2314 
2343 

386 
391 
397 
402 
407 

171.0 
178.2 
185.5 
192.8 
200.3 

3144 
3187 
3230 
3272 
3314 

368 
373 
378 
383 

387 

225.8 
235.3 
244.9 
254.7 
264.5 

4152 
4209 
4265 
4321 
4376 

303 
307 
312 
316 

320 

APPENDIX 

CAPACITIES  HuNT-McCoRMiCK  TURBINES 


155 


a 

2 

E 

'27  INCH  WHEEL. 

30  INCH  WHEEL. 

33  INCH  WHEEL. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev 
Min. 

Hone 
Power. 

Cu  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

14.8   1960  106 


17.8   2361 


93 


19.8   2626   81 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

19.5 
24.5 
30.0 
35.8 
41.9 

2147 
2319 
2479 
2629 
2771 

116 
123 
134 
142 

149 

23.4 
29.5 
36.1 
43.1 
50.4 

2636 
2793 
2986 
3167 
3338 

102 
110 
118 
125 
132 

26.1 
32.9 
40.2 
47.9 
56.1 

2876 
3107 
3321 
3523 
3713 

89 
96 
102 
109 
114 

11 
12 
13 
14 
16 

48.3 
55.0 
62.1 
69.4 
76.9 

2906 
3036 
3160 
3279 
3394 

157 
164 
170 
177 

183 

58.2 
66.3 
74.8 
83.6 
92.7 

3501 
3657 
3806 
3950 
4089 

138 
144 
150 
156 
161 

64.7 
73.8 
83.2 
92.9 
103.1 

3895 
4068 
4234 
4394 
4548 

120 
125 
131 
135 
140 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

84.7 
92.8 
101.1 
109.7 
118.4 

3505 
3613 
3718 
3820 
3919 

189 
195 
200 
200 
211 

102.1 
111.8 
121.8 
132,1 
142.7 

4223 
4353 
4479 
4602 
4721 

167 
172 
177 

182 
186 

113.6 
124.4 
135.5 
147.0 

158.7 

4697 
4842 
4982 
5119 
5252 

145 
149 
154 
158 
162 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

127.4 
136.6 
146.1 
155.7 
165.5 

4016 
4110 
4203 
4293 
4382 

217 
222 
227 
231 
236 

153.5 
164.6 
176.0 
187.6 
199.4 

4838 
4952 
5063 
5172 
5278 

191 
195 
200 
204 
208 

170.8 
183.1 
195.7 
208.6 
221.8 

5381 
5508 
5632 
5753 

5871 

166 
170 
174 

177 
181 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

17.1.6 
185.8 
196.2 
206.8 
217.6 

4468 
4554 
4637 
4719 
4800 

241 
245 
250 
2)4 
259 

211.5 
223.8 
236.3 
249.1 
262.1 

5383 
5486 
5586 
5685 

5782 

212 
216 
220 
224 
228 

235.2 
248.9 
262.9 
277.1 

291.6 

5988 
6102 
6214 
6324 
6432 

185 
188 
192 
195 
198 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

228.6 
539.7 
251.0 
262.5 
274.2 

4879 
4957 
5034 
5110 
5184 

263 
267 
271 
275 

280 

275.3 

288.8 
302.4 
316.3 
330.3 

5878 
5972 
6064 
6156 
6246 

232 
236 
239 
243 
246 

306.3 
321.2 
336.4 
351.8 
367.4 

6538 
6643 
6746 
6847 
6947 

202 
205 
208 
211 
214 

286.0 
298.0 
310.2 
322.5 
335.0 

5258 
5331 
5402 
5473 
5542 

283 

287 
291 
295 
299 

344.6 
359.0 
373.7 

388.5 
403.6 

6334 
6421 
6508 
6593 
6677 

250 
253 
257 
260 
263 

383.3 
399.4 
415.7 
432.2 
448.9 

7046 
7143 
7239 
7333 
7427 

217 
220 
223 
226 
229 

156  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

CAPACITIES  HuNT-McCoRMicx  TURBINES 


a 
•< 
m 

X 

36  INCH  WHEEL. 

39  INCH  WHEEL. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

6\\        25.1 

3316 

79      ||        29.4 

3898 

69 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

32.9 
41.5 
50.7 
60.5 
70.9 

3632 
3923 
4194 
4449 
4689 

87 
94 
100 
106 
112 

38.7 
48.8 
59.6 
7t.l 
83.3 

4270 
4612 
4930 
5229 
5512 

76 

82 
87 
93 
98 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

81.7 
93.1 
105.0 
117.4 
130.2 

4918 
5137 
5347 
5548 
5743 

118 
123 
128 
133 
137 

96.1 
109.5 
123.5 
138.0 
153.0 

5781 
6038 
6285 
6522 
6751 

103 
107 
111 
116 
120 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

143.4 
157.1 
171.1 
185.6 
200.4 

5931 
6114 
6291 
6464 
6632 

142 
146 
150 
154 
158 

168.6 
184.6 
201.1 
218.1 
235.6 

6972 

7187 
7395 
7598 
7795 

124 
127 
131 
135 
138 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

215.6 
231.2 
247.2 
263.4 
280.1 

6795 
6955 
7112 

7265 
7414 

162 
166 
170 
174 

177 

253.5 
271.8 
290.5 
309.7 
329.2 

7988 
8176 
8359 
8539 
£715 

142 
145 
148 
151 
155 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

297.1 
314.4 
332.0 
349.9 
368.2 

7561 
7705 

7847 
7985 
8122 

181 
184 
187 
191 
194 

349.2 
369.5 
390.2 
411.3 
432.8 

8888 
9057 
9223 
9387 
9547    ' 

158 
161 
164 
166 
169 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

386.7 
405.6 
424.8 
444.2 
464.0 

8256 
8388 
8518 
8646 

8773 

197 
200 
204 
207 
210 

454.6 
476.8 
499.3 
522.2 
545.4 

9705 
9860 
10013 
10164 
10312 

172 
175 

178 
180 
183 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

484.0 
504.3 
524.9 
545.7 
566.9 

8897 
9020 
9141 
9260 
9378 

213 
216 
218 
221 
224 

568.9 
592.8 
617.0 
641.5 
666.3 

10459 
10603 
10745 
10885 
11024 

186 
188 
191 
193 
1^6 

APPENDIX 

CAPACITIES  HuNT-McCoRMiCK  TURBINES 


157 


c 

2 

as 

42  INCH  WHEEL. 

46  INCH  WHEEL. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Her. 

Min.       | 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ff. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

4786 


67 


38.5 


5096 


61 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

47.5 
59.9 
73.2 
87.3 
102.3 

5242 
5«62 
6053 
6421 
6768 

74 

80 
85 
90 
95 

50.6 
63.8 
77.9 
93.0 
108.9 

5582 
6030 
6446 
6837 
7207 

67 
72 

77 
82 
87 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

118.0 
134.4 
151.6 
169.4 
187.9 

7098 
7414 
7717 
8008 
8289 

100 
104 
108 
112 
116 

1       125.6 
143.1 
161.4 
180.4 
200.1 

7558 
7894 
8217 
8527 
8826 

91 
95 
99 
102 
106 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

207.0 
226.7 
247.0 
267.8 
289.3 

8561 
8824 
1)080 
9329 
9571 

120 
124 
128 
131 
134 

220.4 
241.4 
263.0 
285.2 
308.0 

9116 
9396 
9669 
9934 
10192 

109 
113 
116 
119 
122 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

311.2 
333.7 
356.7 
380.2 
404.2 

9808 
10038 
10264 
10485 
10701 

138 
141 
144 
147 
150 

331.4 
355.3 
379.8 
404.9 
430.5 

10443 
10689 
10929 
11164 
11395 

125 
128 
131 
134 
137 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

428.7 
453.7 
479.1 
505.0 
531.4 

10913 
11121 
11325 
11525 
11722 

153 
156 
159 
162 
165 

456.5 
483.1 
510.2 
537.8 
565.8 

11620 
11842 
12059 
12272 

12482 

139 
142 
145 
147 
150 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

558.2 
585.4 
613.1 
641.1 
669.6 

11916 
12107 
12294 
12479 
12661 

167 
170 
173 
175 
;78 

5944 
623.4 
652.8 
682.7 
713.0 

12689 
12892 
13091 
13288 
13482 

152 
165 
157 
160 
162 

36 
37 
38 
39 

40 

698.5 
727.8 
757.5 
787.6 
818.1 

12841 
13018 
13193 
13365 
13536 

180 
183 
185 
188 
190 

743.8 
775.2 

806.7 
838.7 
871.2 

13674 
13862 
14048 
14232 
14413 

164 
166 
169 
171 
173 

158  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 

CAPACITIES  HuNT-McCoRMiCK  TURBINES 


Q 

3 

48  INCH  WHEEL. 

51 

INCH  WHEEL. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

1        Cu.  Ft. 
1          Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

43.4 


5749 


55 


49.5 


6545 


56 


6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

57.1 
72.0 

87.9 
104.9 
122.9 

6298 
6802 
7272 
7713 
8130 

60 
65 
70 

74 
78 

65.0 
81.9 
100.1 
119.4 
139.9 

7170 
7745 
8279 
8782 
9257 

61 
66 
70 
75 
79 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

141.7 
161.5 
182.1 
203.5 
225.7 

8527 
8906 
9270 
9620 
9958 

82 
85 
89 
92 
95 

161.4 
183.9 
207.3 
231.7 
257.0 

9708 
10140 
10554 
10952 
11337 

82 
86 
90 
93 
96 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

248.6 
272.3 

296.7 
321.8 
347.5 

10284 
10601 
10908 
11207 
11498 

98 
102 
104 
107 
110 

283.1 
310.0 
337.8 
366.3 
395.6 

11709 
12069 
12419 
12759 
13091 

99 
103 
106 
108 
111 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

373.9 
400.9 
428.5 
456.8 
485.6 

11782 
12059 
12330 
12595 
12855 

113 
115 
118 
121 
123 

1        425.7 
456.4 
487.9 
520.0 
552.9 

13414 
13730 
14038 
14340 
14636 

114 
117 
119 
122 
124 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

515.0 
545.0 
575.6 
606.7 
630.4 

13110 
13360 
13605 
13845 
14082 

126 
128 
130 
133 
135 

1        586.4 
620.5 
655.3 
690.8 

726.8 

14926 
15210 
15489 
15763 
16033 

127 
129 
132 
134 
136 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

670.5 
703.3 
736.5 
770.2 
804.4 

14315 
14544 
14769 
14992 
15210 

137 
139 
141 
144 
146 

763.4 

800.7 
838.5 
876.9 
915.9 

16298 
16559 
16815 
17068 
17317 

138 
141 
143 
145 
147 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

839.2 
874.4 
910.0 
946.2 

982.8 

15426 
15639 
15849 
16056 
16261 

148 
150 
152 
154 
156 

955.4 
995.5 
1036.1 
1077.3 
1119.0 

17363 
17805 
18044 
18280 
18513 

149 
151 
153 
155 
157 

APPENDIX 


159 


CAPACITIES  HuNT-McCoRMiCK  TURBINES 


HKAI).  II 

54  INCH  WHEEL. 

57  INCH  WHEEL. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 
Min. 

Horse 
Power. 

Cu.  Ft. 
Min. 

Rev. 

Min. 

55.4 


7338 


51 


65.3 


8646 


50 


a 

7 

o 
9 

10 

72.9 
91.8 
112.2 
133.9 
156.8 

8038 
8682 
9282 
9845 
10378 

56 
60 
64 
68 
72 

85.9 
108.2 
132,2 
157.8 
184.8 

9472 
10231 
10937 
11601 
12228 

55 
59 
63 
67 
70 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

180.9 
206.1 
232.4 
259.8 
288.1 

10884 
11368 
11832 
12279 
12710 

76 
79 

82 
85 
88 

213.2 
242.9 
273.9 
300.  1 
330.4 

12825 
13395 
13942 
14468 
14976 

74 
77 
80 
83 
86 

16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

317.4 
347.6 
378.7 
410.7 
443.5 

13127 
13531 
13923 
14304 
14676 

91 

94 
97 
99 
102 

374.0 
409.6 
446.2 
483.9 
522.6 

15467 
15943 
16406 
16855 
17293 

89 
92 
94 
97 
100 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

477.2 
511.7 
547.0 
583.0 
619.8 

15038 
15392 
15738 
16077 
16408 

105 
107 
109 
112 
114 

562.3 
602.9 
644.5 
687.0 
730.4 

17720 
18137 
18545 
18944 
19334 

102 
104 
107 
109 
111 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

657.4 
695.7 
734,7 
774.4 
814.8 

16733 
17052 
17365 
17672 
17974 

116 
119 
121 
123 
125 

774.6 
819.7 
865.7 
912.5 
960.1 

19717 
20093 
20461 
20824 
21179 

113 
116 
118 
120 
122 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

855.9 
897.6 
940.0 
983.1 
1026.8 

18272 
18564 
18852 
19135 
19415 

127 
129 
131 
133 
135 

1008.5 
1057.7 
1107.6 
1158.4 
1209.9 

21530 
21874 
22213 
22547 

22876 

124 
126 
128 
130 
132 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

1071.1 
1116.0 
1161.6 
1207.7 
1254.5 

19690 
19962 
20230 
20494 
20755 

137 
139 
141 
142 
144 

1262.1 
1315.0 
1368.7 
1423.1 

1478.2 

23201 
23521 
23837 
24148 
24456 

134 
135 
137 
139 
141 

l6o  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

PRESSURE  OF  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT  ELEVATIONS 


FEET  HEAD 

EQUALS  PRESSURE 
PER  SQUARE  INCH 

FEET  HEAD 

EQUALS  PRESSURE 
PER  SQUARE  INCH 

I 

0-34 

130 

56.31 

5 

2  .  l6 

135 

58.48 

10 

4.33 

140 

60.64 

15 

6.49 

us 

62.81 

20 

8.66 

150 

64.97 

25 

10.82 

155 

67.14 

30 

12.99 

1  60 

69.31 

35 

15.16 

165 

71-47 

40 

17.32 

170 

73.64 

45 

19.49 

175 

75.80 

50 

21.65 

1  80 

77.97 

55 

23.82 

185 

80.  14 

60 

25.99 

190 

82.30 

65 

28.15 

195 

84.47 

70 

30.32 

200 

86.63 

75 

32.48 

205 

88.80 

80 

34.65 

210 

90.96 

85 

36.82 

215 

93-14 

90 

38-98 

220 

95.30 

95 

41.15 

225 

97-49 

IOO 

43-  31 

230 

99.63 

105 

45.48 

235 

101.79 

no 

47-64 

240 

103.96 

115 

49.81 

245 

106.13 

120 

51.98 

250 

108.29 

125 

54.15 

255 

110.46^ 

i  ft.  head  corresponds  to  0.434  Ibs.  per  sq.  inch 
i  Ib.  per  sq.  inch  corresponds  to  2.304  ft.  head. 


APPENDIX 
WEIR  TABLE 


161 


INCHES 

0 

1-8 

2-8 

8-8 

4-8 

5-8 

6-8 

7-8 

0 

0. 

0.02 

0.05 

0.09 

0.14 

0.20 

0.26 

0.33 

1 

0.40 

0.48 

0.56 

0.65 

0.74 

0.83 

0.93 

1.03 

2 

1.14 

1.24 

1.35 

1.47 

1.58 

1.71 

1.82 

1.96 

3 

2.08 

2.21 

2.35 

2.48 

2.63 

2.76 

2.90 

3.06 

4 

3.20 

3.36 

3.51 

3.67 

3.82 

3.98 

4.15 

4.31 

5 

4.48 

4.65 

4.81 

4.99 

5.16 

5.35 

5.52 

5.71 

6 

5.89 

6.06 

6.26 

6.44 

6.64 

6.83 

7.01 

7.22 

7 

7.41 

7.62 

7.82 

8.03 

8.23 

8.42 

8.64 

8.85 

8 

9.07 

9.27 

9.48 

9.71 

9.92 

10.15 

10.36 

10.60 

9 

10.81 

11.03 

11.27 

11.49 

11.74 

11.96 

12.18 

12.43 

10 

12.66 

12.91 

13.14 

13.39 

13.63 

13.86 

14.12 

14.36 

11 

14.62 

14.86 

15.10 

15.37 

15.61 

15.88 

16.13 

16.40 

12 

16.65 

16.90 

17.18 

17.43 

17.71 

17.97 

18.22 

18.51 

13 

18.77 

19.05 

19.31 

19.60 

19.87 

20.13 

20.43 

20.69 

14 

20.99 

21.26 

21.53 

21.83 

22.11 

22.41 

22.68 

22.99 

15 

23.27 

23.55 

23.86 

24.14 

24.45 

24.74 

25.02 

25.34 

16 

25.62 

25.94 

26.23 

26.55 

26.85 

27.14 

27.46 

27.76 

17 

28.08 

28.38 

28.68 

29.01 

29.31 

29.64 

29.95 

30.28 

18 

30.59 

30.89 

31.23 

31.54 

31.88 

32.19 

32.50 

32.85 

19 

33.16 

33.51 

33.82 

34.17 

34.49 

34.81 

35.16 

35.48 

20 

35.84 

36.16 

36.48 

36.84 

37.17 

37.53 

37.85 

38.22 

21 

38.55 

38.88 

39.24 

39.57 

39.94 

40.28 

40.61 

40.98 

22 

41.32 

41.69 

42.03 

42.41 

42.75 

43.09 

43.47 

43.81 

23 

44.19 

44.54 

44.89 

45.27 

45.62 

46.00 

46.35 

46.74 

24 

47.09 

47.45 

47.84 

48.19 

48.58 

48.94 

49.30 

49.69 

For  measuring  large  streams,  find  the  average  velocity  of  the 
whole  stream  in  feet  per  minute  and  the  cross  section  in  square 
feet.  By  multiplying  these  two  amounts,  the  cubic  feet  flow  of 
water  per  minute  in  the  stream  will  be  found.  The  velocity  can 
be  approximated  by  throwing  light  floating  bodies  into  the  middle 
of  the  stream  and  noting  the  time  these  bodies  are  passing  the 
distance  measured  between  two  points.  This  distance  should  be 
taken  where  the  flow  is  most  even  and  uniform.  The  mean  velo- 
city of  the  stream  will  be  about  83  per  cent  of  the  velocity  of  the 
surface  near  the  centre  of  the  stream. 


l62  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

CAPACITIES  AND  DIAMETERS  OF  PIPE 

Doubling  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capacity  four 
times. 

Circular  apertures  are  most  effective  for  discharging  water 
since  they  have  less  frictional  surface  for  the  same  area.  The  area 
of  a  circular  aperture  is  found  by  multiplying  the  square  of  the 
diameter  by  .7854. 

To  find  the  velocity  in  feet  per  minute  necessary  to  discharge 
a  given  volume  of  water  in  a  given  time,  multiply  the  number  of 
cubic  feet  of  water  by  144,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  area  of 
the  pipe  in  inches. 

The  time  occupied  in  discharging  equal  quantities  of  water 
under  equal  heads  through  pipes  of  equal  lengths  will  be  different 
in  varying  forms  and  proportionately  as  follows:  Have  a  straight 
line  90:  Have  a  true  curve  100:  and  have  a  right  angle  140. 

To  find  the  horse  power  necessary  to  elevate  the  water  to  a 
given  height,  multiply  the  total  weight  of  column  of  water  in 
pounds  by  the  velocity  per  minute  in  feet,  and  divide  the  product 
by  33-1000.  An  allowance  of  25  per  cent  should  be  added  for 
friction,  etc. 

To  find  the  area  of  a  required  pipe,  the  volume  and  velocity 
of  water  being  given,  multiply  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  by 
144  and  divide  the  product  by  the  velocity  in  feet  per  minute. 
The  area  being  found,  the  diameter  of  pipe  is  readily  figured. 

Friction  of  liquids  in  pipes  increases  as  the  square  of  their 
velocity. 


APPENDIX 


i63 


Loss  OF  HEAD  IN  ONE  HUNDRED  FEET  LENGTH  OF  PIPE  AT 
DIFFERENT  VELOCITIES 


1 

«s 

If 

•o 
§ 

3 

TJ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

•c 

1 

I 

o 

* 

iil 

1 

1 

I 

1 

1 

I 

1 

I 

9 

3*1 

1 

£ 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

£ 

•_•* 

Pd 

m 

m 

PCI 

PC. 

£ 

5 

32" 

" 

c* 

ec 

* 

0 

<0 

* 

3 

2.95 

.186 

.476 

.700 

1.507 

2.600 

3.937 

5.598 

7.472 

6 

11.75 

.0855 

.213 

.324 

.702 

1.214 

1.843 

2.619 

3.003 

9 

26.50 

.0543 

.1422 

.2053 

.4440 

.7690 

1.170 

1.6650 

2.4500 

12 

47.10 

.040 

.0983 

.1480 

.3206 

.5500 

.8437 

1.1925 

1.5925 

15 

73.50 

.0295 

.0754 

.1170 

.2430 

.4240 

.6500 

.9190 

1.2250 

18 

106 

.0237 

.0600 

.0900* 

.1944 

.3400 

.5208 

.7425 

.9975 

21 

144 

.0193 

.0492 

.0729 

.1607 

.2800 

.4286 

.6043 

.8150 

24 

188 

.0166 

.0413 

.0625 

.1350 

.2350 

.3641 

.5175 

.6891 

27 

238 

.0139 

.0341 

.0533 

.1175 

.2044 

.3125 

.4460 

.5990 

30 

294 

.0123 

.0310 

.0470 

.1013 

.1760 

.2725 

.3870 

.5230 

36 

424 

0096 

.t)243 

.0367 

.0787 

.1383 

.2135 

.3038 

.4073 

42 

577 

.0075 

.0189 

.0286 

.0630 

.1114 

.1571 

2443 

.3280 

48 

752 

.0062 

.0158 

.0240 

.0529 

.0925 

.1438 

.2042 

.2756 

54 

954 

.0052 

.0133 

.0202 

.0449 

.0778 

.1198 

.1700 

.2300 

60 

1176 

.0044 

.0113 

.0173 

.0383 

.0667 

.1062 

.1458 

.1972 

66 

1425 

.0039 

.0100 

.0153 

.0338 

.0591 

.0909 

.1309 

.1755 

72 

1696 

.0035 

.0089 

.0137 

.0301 

.0530 

.0815 

.1162 

.1698 

78 

1991 

.0031 

.0079 

.0122 

.0263 

.0476 

.0731 

.1038 

.1382 

84 

2308 

.0028 

.0072 

.0110 

.0243 

.0426 

.0656 

.0939 

.1256 

90 

2650 

.0025 

.0063 

.0098 

.0218 

.0382 

.0590 

.0840 

.1139 

96 

3008 

.0022 

.0055 

.0088 

.0196 

.0342 

.0531 

.0754 

.1018 

102 

3406 

.0021 

.0046 

.0083 

.0183 

.0334 

.0511 

.0731 

.1000 

108 

3816 

.0019 

.0043 

.0075 

.0172 

.0307 

.0482 

.0693 

.0964 

120 

4704 

.0018 

.0040 

.0070 

.0160 

.0285 

.0446 

.0643 

.0876 

132 

5702 

.0017 

.0038 

.0067 

.0154 

.0276 

.0430 

.0619 

.0851 

144 

6784 

.0015 

.0032 

.0060 

.0131 

.0241 

.0374 

.0523 

.0735 

i64 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


VELOCITY  OF  \YATER 

Table  giving  velocity  of  water  in  feet  per  second,  and  the 
cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute,  to  develop  one  horse  power 
at  80  per  cent,  duty  under  heads  from  1  to  108  feet. 


1 

.| 
1 

i 
i 

1 

W 

£ 

:> 

i 

.2 
M 

3 

I 

1 

0 

1 

. 

1 

£ 

o 
3 

3 

1 

8.02 

661.765 

37 

48.78 

17.886 

73 

68.53 

9.065 

2 

11.34 

330.883 

38 

49.44 

17.415 

74 

69.00 

8.943 

3 

13.89 

220.589 

39 

50.09 

16.S68 

75 

69.46 

8.822 

4 

16.04 

165.441 

40 

50.72 

16.544 

76 

69.92 

8.707 

5 

17.92 

132.353 

41 

51.35 

16.141 

77 

70.38 

8.594 

6 

19.65 

110.294 

42 

51.98 

15.756 

78 

70.84 

8.484 

7 

21.22 

94.538 

43 

52.59 

15.390 

79 

71.29 

8.377 

8 

22.68 

82.720 

44 

53.20 

15.040 

80 

71.74 

8.272 

9 

24.06 

73.529 

45 

53.80 

14.706 

81 

72.19 

8.170 

10 

25.36 

66.177 

46 

54.40 

14.368 

82 

72.63 

8.070 

11 

26.60 

60.160 

47 

54.99 

14.080 

83 

73.07 

7.973 

12 

27.78 

55.147 

48 

55.57 

13.787 

84 

73.51 

7.878 

13 

28.92 

50.905 

49 

56.14 

13.505 

85 

73.95 

7.785 

14 

30.01 

47.269 

50 

56.71 

13.236 

86 

74.38 

7.695 

15 

31.06 

44.118 

51 

57.27 

12.976 

87 

74.81 

7.606 

16 

32.08 

41.360 

52 

57.84 

12.726 

88 

75.24 

7.520 

17 

33.07 

38.927 

53 

58.39 

12.486 

89 

75.67 

7.436 

18 

34.03 

36.765 

54 

58.93 

12.255 

90 

76.09 

7.353 

19 

34.96 

34.830 

55 

59.48 

12.032 

91 

76.51 

7.272 

20 

35.87 

33.088 

56 

60.01 

11.817 

92 

76.93 

7.193 

21 

36.75 

31.513 

57 

60.56 

11.610 

93 

77.35 

7.116 

22 

37.61 

30.080 

58 

61.08 

11.410 

94 

77.76 

7.040 

23 

38.46 

28.772 

59 

61.61 

11.216 

95 

78.18 

6.966 

24 

39.29 

27.574 

60 

62.12 

11.029 

96 

78.59 

6.893 

25 

40.10 

26.471 

61 

62.71 

10.849 

97 

79.00 

6.822 

26 

40.89 

25.453 

62 

63.15 

10.674 

98 

79.40 

6.753 

27 

41.67 

24.510 

63 

63.66 

10.504 

99 

79.81 

6.685 

28 

42.44 

23.634 

64 

64.16 

10.340 

100 

80.22 

6.618 

29 

43.19 

22.819 

65 

64.66 

10.181 

101 

80.61 

6.552 

30 

43.93 

22.059 

66 

65.16 

10.027 

102 

81.01 

6.487 

31 

44.65 

21.347 

67 

65.65 

9.877 

103 

81.40 

6.425 

32 

45.37 

20.680 

68 

66.14 

9.732 

104 

81.80 

6.363 

33 

46.07 

20.053 

69 

66.62 

9.591 

105 

82.19 

6.303 

34 

46.77 

19.464 

70 

67.11 

9.454 

106 

82.58 

6.243 

35 

47.45 

18.908 

71 

67.58 

9.321 

107 

82.97 

6.185 

36 

48.12 

18.382 

72 

68.06 

9.191 

108 

83.35 

6.127 

APPENDIX 


165 


QUICK  REFERENCE  FACTS 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  62.33  pounds,  and  contains  7.48 
gallons.  A  cubic  foot  of  soft  wood,  green,  weighs  53  pounds;  air 
dried,  30  pounds;  kiln  dried,  28  pounds.  A  cubic  foot  of  hard 
wood,  green,  weighs  62  pounds;  air  dried,  46  pounds;  kiln  dried, 
40  pounds.  A  cubic  foot  of  cast  iron  weighs  450  pounds;  wrought 
iron,  480  pounds;  sandstone,  140  pounds;  granite,  180  pounds; 
brickwork,  95  pounds.  A  ton  of  shipping  is  42  cubic  feet;  a  perch 
of  stone  is  22  cubic  feet  measured  in  wall,  and  24.75  cubic  feet 
measured  in  pile. 

The  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  usually  estimated  at 
14.7  pounds  per  square  inch,  so  with  a  perfect  vacuum  it  will  sus- 
tain a  column  of  mercury  29.9  inches,  or  a  column  of  water  33.9 
feet  high. 


Diameter  of  Circle  x  3.  1416 

Circumference  x     .31831 

Diameter  x     .8862 

Diameter  x     .8862 

Side  of  a  Square  x  1 .  128 

Square  of  a  Diameter  x     .7854 

Square  Root  of  Area  x  1 .  12837 
Square  of  the  Diameter 

of  a  Sphere  x  3  .  1416 
Cube  of  the  Diameter  of  a 

Sphere  x     .5236 

Diameter  of  a  Sphere  x     .806 

Diameter  of  a  Sphere  x     .6667 

Square  inches     '  x     .00695 

Cubic  inches  x     .00058 

Cubic  feet  x     .03704 

Cylindrical  inches  x     .0004546 

Cylindrical  feet  x     .02909 

Cubic  inches  x     .003607 

Cubic  feet  x     .6232 

Cylindrical  inches  x     .002832 

Cylindrical  feet  x  4.895 
183  .  346  Circular  inches 
2200  Cylindrical  inches 
7,4805  U.  S.  Gallons 

Square  root  the  Head  x  8.02 

Diameter  of  Circle  x     .7071 

Avoirdupois  pounds  x     .009 

Avoirdupois  pounds  x     .00045 

Lineal  feet  x     .00019 

Lineal  yards  x     .000568 


equals  Circumference. 
Diameter. 

The  side  of  an  equal  Square. 
The  side  of  an  equal  Square. 
Diameter  of  an  equal  Circle 
The  area  of  a  Circle. 
Diameter  of  equal  Circle. 

Convex  surface. 

Solidity. 

Dimensions  of  equal  Cube. 

Length  of  equal  Cylinder. 

Square  feet. 

Cubic  feet. 

Cubic  yards. 

Cubic  feet. 

Cubic  yards. 

Imperial  gallons. 


i  Square  foot. 

i  Cubic  foot. 

I  Cubic  foot. 

Spouting  velocity  per  sec. 

Side  of  an  inscribed  Square 

Cwts. 

Tons. 

Statute  miles. 

Statute  miles. 


i66 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


AMERICAN,  OR  BROWN  AND  SHARPE  (B 
MEASURING  THE  DIAMETER  OF  Ei 

B.  &  S.               Diameter  of                                   Area  in 
Gauge                 Solid  Wire                                  Circular 
Number                   in  Mils                                        Mils 

18.  .  40-3  1,624  
16                         co.  8                   .            2.c8-?  . 

&  S.),  WIRE  GAGE  FOR 
.ECTRICAL  WIRING. 

Table  A                   Table  B 
Rubber                       other 
Insulation               Insulation 
Amperes                   Amperes 

3                                           c 

...           6.  ... 

.      .              IO 

14..  . 

64.1 

4,107.  .  .  . 

15  
20  
25  
TC  

20 

25 
30 

CO 

12  
10.  ...... 

8  
6 

..  80.8... 

.  .  101.9.    • 

.  .  .128.5.  .  . 

162  o 

6,530.... 

10,380.  .  .  . 
16,510  

26  2CO 

CQ 

70 

c 

181  q 

11   IOO 

c  c 

80 

4  
3  

2 

..204.3.  •  • 
..229.4.  .  . 

2C7.6 

41,740  

C2,6^O 

70 

oo 

80 

IOO 

66,370 

•  •  .  .  .     90  

IOO  

125  
150  
175  

200  
225  

125 
150 

2OO 

.  .  .  .  .    225 
275 
300 

12C 

o  
oo  

..289.3.... 

..325.  ••  - 
.  .364.8 

83,690  
105,500  — 

13  3,  ioo.  . 

ooo  

J*-"t 
.  .409.6. 

167,800.  .  .    . 

oooo  

..460.  ... 

200,000.  .  .  . 

211,600  
300,000  
400  ooo 

275  
-22C 

400 

coo 

500,000.  .  .  . 

4OO  

J 
600 

600,000.  .  .  . 
700,000 

450  
COO 

680 

760 

800,000 

ceo  . 

84.0 

900,000 

600 

Q2O 

1,000,000.  .  .  . 
,100,000.  .  .  . 
,200,000.  .  .  . 

,300,000.  .  .  . 
,400,000.  .  .  . 
,500,000.  .  .  . 
,600,000.  .  .  . 
,700,000.  .  .  . 
,800,000.  .  .  . 
,900,000.  .  .  . 
2,000,000.  .  .  . 

6co. 

,000 

{•* 
690  

730  
770  

810  
850  
890  

930.  :   

970  

.....  1,010  

1,050  

,080 

,150 

,220 
,290 

,360 
,430 

,49° 
'550 
,610 
,670 

I  Mil  =  0.001  inch. 


APPENDIX 


1 67 


COOCOCOOCOCO        O  CO  O  CO  CO  O  C?2? 
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rHCO»0 


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C- CM  "*  10  CO  00  05  O   •*>**( 
i- 1  CM  CO  ^  U3  CO  t-  O>   COU3< 


l-H  1-1  l-ll-H 


CO  rH  CM  CM  CO  f  CM  »0   CM  00  Tt  O  CO  CM  00   CM  -^"  IQ  CO  OO  O5  O 
i-H  CM  CO  f  »0  CO  t-  00   CO  •*•  CO  00  O5  r-t  CM   •<*  CO  OO  O  CM  ^  t- 


OU3OU3010O       iOOOOOOOO        O  iO  O  U5 
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l-H  l-H  l-H  l-t 


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i68 


POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


-a 
<u 


J 


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W 

£ 

- 

c/3 

W 


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APPENDIX  169 

RULE  FOR  FINDING  THE  LENGTH  OF  BELTS 

Add  the  diameter  of  the  two  pulleys  together,  multiply  by 
3  1-7,  divide  the  product  by  2,  add  to  the  quotient  twice  the  dis- 
tance between  the  centers  of  the  shafts,  and  the  sum  will  be  the 
required  length. 

The  power  a  belt  is  able  to  transmit  depends  upon  the  dia- 
meter of  the  pulley  and  the  arc  of  contact. 

It  increases  with  the  diameter  and  arc  of  contact. 

If  arc  of  contact  is  only  one-third  of  circumference,  the  power 
of  the  belt  if  30  per  cent  less;  and  if  arc  of  contact  is  two-thirds  of 
circumference  the  power  is  25  per  cent  more  than  of  that  given  in 
the  table. 

A  belt  will  not  transmit  more  power  spliced  than  laced,  -unless 
used  with  a  tightener;  then  splicing  is  preferable. 

With  a  tightener,  however,  and  the  belt  being  spliced,  it  trans- 
mits 10  per  cent  to  15  per  cent  more  than  that  given  in  the  table 
for  any  given  width  of  belt. 

Always  figure  the  power  of  the  belt  by  the  smaller  of  the  two 
pulleys  over  which  it  runs. 

The  table  given  on  the  succeeding  pages  covering  double 
belting  is  computed  with  the  assumption  that  the  pulley  is  five 
feet  in  diameter  and  the  arc  of  contact  one-half  the  circumference. 

The  table  given  on  the  succeeding  pages  covering  single  belt- 
ing is  computed  assuming  that  the  pulley  is  three  feet  in  diameter 
and  the  arc  of  contact  one-half  of  circumference. 

Rubber  belts  should  be  used  20  per  cent  to  25  per  cent  wider 
than  leather  belts  to  transmit  the  same  power. 

COMPARISON  OF  RUBBER  AND  LEATHER  BELTING 

In  the  following,  Rubber  Belting  made  from  32-ounce  Cotton 
Duck  has  been  taken  as  a  basis  for  comparison: 

2  Ply  Rubber  Belt  =  Light  Single  Leather  Belt. 

3  Ply  Rubber  Belt  =  Medium  Single  Leather  Belt. 

4  Ply  Rubber  Belt  =  Heavy  Single  Leather  Belt. 

5  Ply  Rubber  Belt— Light  Double  Leather  Belt. 

6  Ply  Rubber  Belt  =  Medium  Double  Leather  Belt. 

7  Ply  Rubber  Belt  =  Heavy  Double  Leather  Belt. 

8  Ply  Rubber  Belt=   Triple  Leather  Belt. 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

HORSE  POWER  TRANSMITTED  BY  SINGLE  LEATHER  BELTS 
Belts  supposed  not  to  be  overstrained,  so  they  will  last. 
1  inch  wide,  800  feet  per  minute  =  1  Horse  power. 


Speed  in 
Feet  per 
Minute 

WIDTH  OF  BELTS  IN  INCHES 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P.  H.  P.  H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

400 

1 

U 

2 

2| 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

600 

H 

2i 

3 

3! 

4^ 

6 

n 

9 

10J 

12 

13i 

15 

800 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

1000 

2£ 

H 

5 

6} 

1\ 

10 

12* 

15 

17| 

20 

22£ 

25 

1200 

3 

4£ 

6 

7£ 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

1500 

3! 

t| 

7| 

9| 

1U 

15 

18| 

22^ 

26| 

30 

33| 

37£ 

1800 

4£ 

6} 

9 

m 

13| 

18 

22£ 

27 

3U 

36 

40| 

45 

2000 

5 

?f 

10 

12* 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

2400 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

2800 

7 

10J 

14 

m 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

3000 

7* 

11J 

15 

18} 

22^ 

30 

37£ 

45 

52| 

60 

67^ 

75 

3500 

8| 

13 

17J 

22 

26 

35 

44 

52i 

61 

70 

79 

88 

4000 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

4500 

Ui 

17 

22£ 

2$ 

34 

45 

57 

69 

78 

90 

102 

114 

5000 

12* 

19 

25 

31 

37£ 

50 

62£ 

75 

87£ 

100 

112 

125 

APPENDIX  171 

HORSE  POWER  TRANSMITTED  BY  DOUBLE  LEATHER  BELTS 
Belts  supposed  not  to  be  overstrained,  so  they  will  last. 
1  inch  wide,  550  feet  per  minute  =  1  Horse  Power. 


Speed  in 
Feet  per 
Minute 

WIDTH  OF  BELTS  IN  INCHES 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

28 

30 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  P. 

H.  p. 

400 

2! 

41 

5f 

71 

8* 

10 

H* 

13 

14| 

16 

17| 

20 

21* 

600 

41 

6* 

8! 

11 

13 

15 

17| 

19| 

22 

24 

26 

30| 

32* 

800 

5f 

8* 

HI 

14| 

17| 

20| 

23 

26 

29 

32 

34| 

40| 

43* 

1000 

71 

11 

14| 

181 

21| 

25| 

29 

32| 

36 

40 

43* 

51 

54f 

1200 

8* 

13 

17| 

22 

26 

30| 

34| 

39 

44 

48 

52| 

60| 

65 

1500 

10| 

161 

21| 

271 

32| 

38 

43| 

49 

54| 

60 

65| 

76| 

81* 

1800 

13 

m 

26 

32! 

39 

45| 

52 

59 

65| 

72 

78| 

91* 

98 

2000 

14| 

21| 

29 

36| 

43* 

50| 

58 

65| 

72* 

80 

87 

102 

109 

2400 

17J 

26 

34| 

44 

52* 

60| 

69| 

78| 

88 

96 

105 

122 

131 

2800 

201 

30| 

40| 

51 

61 

71 

81 

91| 

102 

112 

122 

142 

153 

3000 

21* 

32| 

43| 

54| 

65* 

76 

87| 

98 

108 

120 

131 

153 

163 

3500 

25£ 

38 

50! 

63| 

76 

89 

101 

114 

127 

140 

153 

178 

191 

4000 

29 

43| 

581 

72! 

87 

101 

116 

131 

145 

160 

174 

204 

218 

4500 

32£ 

49 

65 

82 

98 

114 

131 

147 

163 

180 

196 

229 

245 

5000 

36  > 

54* 

72! 

91 

109 

127 

145 

163 

182 

200 

218 

254 

272 

172  POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 

MISCELLANEOUS  WEIGHTS 


Cast  Iron,  - 
Wrought  Iron,     - 
Gun  Metal, 
White  Pine, 
Steel,      -       -    "• 


Cast  Iron,  - 
Brass,     - 

Tin, 
Zinc,      -' 


Names. 

Platina, 

Antimony, 

Bismuth, 

Tin, 

Lead, 

Zinc. 

Cast  Iron, 


Average  Weight 
Cubic  Ft. 

-  450  pounds 

-  485    " 

-  528    " 

25    " 

-  489    " 


Average  Weight 
Cubic  In. 

.  260  pounds 

.281 

.306  " 
.015  " 
.283 


SHRINKAGE  OF  CASTINGS 


J/8  inch  per  lineal  foot 
YQ  inch  per  lineal  foot 
i/£  inch  per  lineal  foot 
YS  inch  per  lineal  foot 


MELTING  POINT  OF  METALS,  ETC. 


Fahr. 
4590 

842 
487 

475 
620 
700 

2100 


Names. 

Wrought  Iron, 

Steel, 

Copper, 

Glass, 

Beeswax, 

Sulphur, 

Tallow, 


Fahr. 
2900 
2500 

2000 

2377 

IS' 

239 

92 


APPENDIX 
AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF  CIRCLES 


173 


Dia. 
in 
inch 

Circ'nr 
in 
ft.      it 

i 

u 

Area  in 
Square 
Inches 

Dia. 
in 

ft.      in. 

Circ'n 
in 
ft.     in 

i 
. 

Area  in 
Square 
Feet 

Dia. 
in 
ft.     in. 

Circ'n 
in 

ft.     ir 

i 

. 

Area  i 
Square 
Feet 

1 

3' 

.7854 

2 

3     7, 

i 

.0775 

3     2 

9   111 

1 

7.8681 

1} 

3i 

1.227 

2i 

3     9J 

.1569 

3     2i 

10     0, 

• 

8.0846 

4 

1.767 

3 

3   11^ 

.2370 

3     3 

10     2> 

8.2951 

H 

5 

2.405 

3i 

4     0 

.3208 

3     3i 

10     4 

8.5091 

2 

6 

3.141 

4     2i 

.4074 

3    4 

10     5 

8.7269 

7 

3.976 

4i 

4     3; 

.4967 

3    4i 

10     7 

8.9462 

2i 

7i 

1 

4.908 

5 

4     5J 

.5888 

3     5 

10     8; 

9.1686 

2f 

8 

5.939 

5i 

4     6, 

.6836 

3     5i 

10  10, 

9.3936 

3 

9i 

7.068 

6 

4     8J 

.7812 

3     6 

10  11, 

9.6212 

31 

8.295 

6i 

4  10 

.8816 

3     6i 

H     li 

9.8518 

11 

9.621 

7 

4  11, 

.9847 

3     7 

11     3 

10.084 

3f 

Hi 

1 

11.044 

7i 

5     1 

2.0904 

3     7i 

11    4 

10.320 

4 

1     0 

12.566 

8 

5    2, 

2.1990 

3     8 

11     6 

10.559 

if 

li 

14.186 

8i 

5     4, 

2.3103 

3     8i 

11     7 

10.800 

41 

2; 

15.904 

9 

5     5, 

; 

2.4244 

3     9 

11     9 

11.044 

Ii 

2j 

17.720 

9| 

5     7, 

2.5412 

3     9i 

11  10 

11.291 

5 

3i 

19.635 

10i 

5     9j 

2.6608 

3  10 

12    0 

i 

11.534 

51 

21.647 

5  10, 

2.7632 

3  10i 

12     2 

11.793 

5i 

23.758 

1  II5 

6     Oi 

2.8903 

3  11 

12    3 

1 

12.048 

5£ 

6 

25.967 

1  Hi 

6      1; 

3.0129 

3  Hi 

12     5 

12.305 

6 

6| 

28.274 

2     0 

6     3 

3.1418 

4     0 

12     6 

• 

12.566 

7 

30.679 

2     0£ 

6     4 

3.2731 

4     Oi 

12     8 

\ 

12.829 

6i 

8i 

33.183 

2     1 

6     6 

3.4081 

4     1 

12     9 

I 

13.095 

6! 

35.784 

2     li 

6     8 

3.5468 

U 

12  Hi 

\ 

13.364 

7 

i  lo1 

38.484 

2     2 

6     9 

3.6870 

2 

13     1 

13.635 

i  ioi 

41.282 

2    2i 

6  11J 

3.8302 

2| 

13     2J 

13.909 

7i 

i  11 

44.178 

2     3 

7     0 

3.9761 

3 

13     4 

J4.186 

7f 

2     Oi 

47.173 

2     3i 

7     2 

4.1241 

3i 

13     5 

14.465 

8 

2     1- 

50.265 

2    4 

7     3 

4.2760 

4     4 

13     7 

14.748 

81 

2     1| 

53.456 

2     4i 

7     5^ 

4.4302 

4     4i 

13     85 

15.033 

8i 

2     2 

56.745 

2     5 

7     7 

4.5861 

4     5 

13  10i 

15.320 

8f 

2     3j 

60.132 

2     5i 

7     8 

f 

4.7467 

4     5i 

14     0 

15.611 

9 

2     4; 

63.617 

2    J6 

7  10 

4.9081 

4     6 

14     1' 

15.904 

g  i 

2     5 

67.200 

2     6i 

7  11 

I 

5.0731 

4     6i 

14     3J 

16.200 

9i 

2     5 

1 

70.882 

2     7 

8     1 

; 

5.2278 

4     7 

14     4' 

16.498 

9f 

2     6 

74.662 

2     7i 

8     2 

' 

5.4112 

4     7i 

14     6 

16.800 

10 

2     7, 

1 

78.540 

2     8 

8     4 

5.5850 

4     8 

14     7 

17.104 

10J 

2     8 

82.516 

2     8i 

8     6 

\ 

5.7601 

4     8i 

14     9^ 

17.411 

10* 

2     8] 

86.590 

2     9 

8     7 

I 

5.9398 

4     9 

14     11 

. 

17.720 

lOf 

2     9 

90.762 

2     9| 

8     9 

6.1201 

4     9i 

15    0 

I 

18.033 

11 

2  10. 

1 

95.789 

2  10 

8  10 

| 

6.3051 

4  10 

15    2 

18.347 

Hi 

2  11 

100.195 

2  10i 

9     0 

6.4911 

4  10i 

15    3 

\ 

18.665 

ill 

3     0 

; 

104.688 

2  11 

9     1 

• 
i 

6.6815 

4  11 

15       5; 

18.985 

HI 

3     0 

109.296 

2  Hi 

9     3 

6.8738 

4  Hi 

15     6 

19.309 

12 

3     1 

!- 

113.990 

3     0 

9     5 

7.0688 

5    0 

15     8 

19.635 

3     3 

. 

123.696 

3     Oi 

9     6 

1 

7.2664 

5    Oi 

15  10 

19.963 

13 

3     4 

\ 

133.790 

3     1 

9     8 

7.4661 

5     1 

15  11 

20.294 

3     6 

144.223 

3    H 

9     9 

7.6691 

5     li 

16     1 

20.629 

NL 

174 


POWER  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SMALL  STREAMS 
AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCES  OF  CIRCLES 


Dia. 
in 
ft.  in. 

Circ'm 
in 
ft.  in. 

Area  in 
Square 
Feet 

Dia. 
in 
ft.  in. 

Circ'm 
in 
ft.  in. 

Area  in 
Square 
Feet 

Dia. 
in 
ft.  in. 

Circ'm 
in 
ft.  in. 

Area  in 
Square 
Feet 

5   2 

16  2f 

20.965 

7  4 

23  01 

42.2367 

11  4 

35  7} 

100.8797 

5   21 

16  44 

21.305 

5 

23  21 

43.2028 

5 

35  10 

102.3689 

5   3 

16  51 

21.647 

6 

23  6f 

44.1787 

6 

36  l\ 

103.8691 

5   3* 

16  7| 

21.992 

7 

23  11 

45.1656 

7 

36  4j 

105.3794 

5   4 

16  9 

22.333 

8 

24  1| 

46.1638 

8 

36  7{ 

106.9013 

5   4* 

16  lOf 

22.621 

9 

24  41 

47.1730 

9 

36  101 

108.4342 

5   5 

17  01 

23.043 

10 

24  74 

48.1926 

10 

37  2, 

109.9772 

5   51 

17  If 

23.330 

11 

24  lOf 

49.2236 

11 

37  5 

111.5319 

5   6 

17  3f 

23.758 

8  0 

25  1| 

50.2656 

12  0 

37  85 

113.0976 

5   61 

17  41 

24.119 

1 

25  4i 

51.3178 

1 

37  11-. 

114.6732 

5   7 

17  6* 

24.483 

2 

25  71 

52.3816 

2 

38  2 

116.2607 

5   71 

17  8 

24.850 

3 

25  11 

53.4562 

3 

38  5; 

117.8590 

5   8 

17  9| 

25.220 

4 

26  21 

54.5412 

4 

38  8j 

119.4674 

5   81 

17  Hi 

25.592 

5 

26  54 

55.6377 

5 

39  0 

121.0876 

5   9 

18  0| 

25.964 

6 

26  8f 

56.7451 

6 

39  33 

122.7187 

5   9* 

18  24 

26.344 

7 

26  111 

57.8628 

7 

39  6j 

: 

124.3598 

5  10 

18  31 

26.725 

8 

27  2f 

58.9920 

8 

39  9^ 

126.0127 

5  10| 

18  51 

27.108 

9 

27  5f 

60.1321 

9 

40  Oi 

127.6765 

5  11 

18  7 

27.494 

10 

27  9 

61.2826 

10 

40  3i 

129.3504 

5  11| 

18  8 

5 

27.883 

11 

28  01 

62.4445 

11 

40  61 

131.0360 

6   0 

18  10- 

28.274 

9  0 

28  34 

63.6174 

13  0 

40  10 

132.7326 

6   01 

18  11 

28.663 

1 

28  6| 

64.8006 

1 

41  1| 

134.4391 

6   1 

19  15 

29.065 

2 

28  9| 

65.9951 

2 

41  4| 

136.1574 

6   1* 

19  23 

29.466 

3 

29  Of 

67.2007 

3 

41  1\ 

137.8867 

6   2 

19  44 

29.867 

4 

29  3| 

68.4166 

4 

41  10i 

139.6260 

6   2* 

19  6 

30.271 

5 

29  7 

69.6440 

5 

42  11 

141.3771 

6   3 

19  7| 

30.679 

6 

29  101 

70.8823 

6 

42  4i 

143.1391 

6   3* 

19  9i 

31.090 

7 

30  14 

72.1309 

7 

42  8 

144.9111 

6   4 

19  10; 

31.503 

8 

30  4f 

73.3910 

8 

42  111 

146.6949 

6   4* 

20  0 

31.919 

9 

30  71 

74.6620 

9 

43  2J 

148.4896 

6   5 

20  13 

32.337 

10 

30  Hi 

75.9433 

10 

43  51 

150.2943 

6   5* 

20  3{ 

32.759 

11 

31  If 

77.2362 

11 

43  8| 

152.1109 

6   6 

20  5 

33.183 

10  0 

31  5 

78.5400 

14  0 

43  113 

153.9384 

6   61 

20  6> 

33.619 

1 

31  81 

79.8540 

1 

44  21 

155.7758 

6   7 

20  8 

34.039 

2 

31  114 

81.1795 

2 

44  6 

157.6250 

6   7* 

20  9; 

34.471 

3 

32  2| 

82.5160 

3 

44  94 

159.4852 

6   8 

20  11 

34.906 

4 

32  5| 

83.8627 

4 

45  01 

161.3553 

6   8'i 

21  0T 

35.344 

5 

32  8| 

85.2000 

5 

45  31 

163.2373 

6   9 

21  2[ 

35.784 

6 

32  11| 

86.5880 

6 

45  6| 

165.1303 

6   9* 

21  4 

36.227 

7 

33  2j 

87.9697 

7 

45  9f 

167.0331 

6  10 

21  5i 

36.674 

8 

33  6g 

89.3608 

8 

46  01 

168.^479 

6  10| 

21  7 

37.122 

9 

33  9i 

90.7627 

9 

46  4 

170.8735 

6  11 

21   8; 

37.573 

10 

34  Of 

92.1749 

10 

46  71 

172.8091 

6  1U 

21  10 

38.027 

11 

34  3i 

93.5986 

11 

46  Hi 

174.7565 

7   0 

21  Hi 

38.4846 

11  0 

34  6| 

95.0334 

15  0 

47  If 

176.7150 

7   1 

22  3 

39.4060 

1 

34  9| 

96.4783 

1 

47  4| 

178.6832 

7   2 

22  61 

40.3388 

2 

35  01 

97.9347 

2 

47  7| 

180.6634 

7   3 

22  94  41.2825 

3 

35  41 

99.4021 

3 

47  101 

182.6545 

APPENDIX 
FRACTIONS  OF  LINEAL  INCH  IN  DECIMALS 


175 


Lineal 
Inches 

Lineal  Foot 

Lineal 
Inches 

Lineal  Foot               {jjjjj 

Lineal 
Foot 

* 

0.001302083 

U 

0.15625 

6} 

0.5625 

^L. 

0.00260416 

2 

0.1666 

7 

0.5833 

iV 

0.0052083 

2 

0.177083 

7} 

0.60416 

i 

0.010416 

2 

0.1875 

74 

0.625 

A 

0.015625 

2 

0.197916 

7} 

0.64583 

i 

0.02083 

2 

0.2083 

8 

0.66667 

j 

0.0260416 
0.03125 
0.0364583 
0.0416 

2j 

I 
3 

0.21875 
0.22916 
0.239583 
0.25 

II 

ij 

0.6875 
0.7083 
0.72916 
0.76 

j 

0.046875 

3* 

0.27083 

H 

0.77083 

0.052083 

3* 

0.2916 

M 

0.7916 

i 

0.0572916 

31 

0.3125 

0.8125 

0.0625 

4 

0.33333 

10 

0.83333 

i 

0.0677083 

41 

0.35416 

10* 

0.85416 

0.072916 

il 

0.375 

0.875 

i 

0.078125 

4f 

0.39583 

10f 

0.89583 

0.0833 

5 

0.4166 

11 

0.9166 

0.09375 

51 

0.4375 

111 

0.9375 

0.10416 

5* 

0.4583 

0.9683 

0.114583 

5f 

0.47916 

ul 

0.97916 

0.125 

6 

0.5 

12 

1.000 

0.135416 

g  i 

0.52083 

0.14583 

6} 

0.5416 

LINEAL  INCHES  IN  DECIMAL  FRACTIONS  OF  A  LINEAL  FOOT 


Fractions 

Decimals 
of  an  inch 

Fractions 

Decimals 
of  an  inch 

Fractions 

Decimals 
of  an  inch 

Fractions 

Decimals 
of  an  inch 

A 

0.015625 

0.265625 

«l 

0.515635 

0.765625 

0.03125 

& 

0.28125 

If 

0.53125 

J  . 

0.78125 

^ 

0.04687 

if 

0.296875 

0.546875 

0.796875 

JL 

0.0625 

0.3125 

» 

0.5625 

0.8125 

JL 

0.078125 

I 

0.328125 

|7 

0.578125 

I  . 

0.828125 

A 

0.09375 

1J 

0.34375 

1  | 

0.59375 

0.84375 

* 

0.109375 

|: 

0.359375 

H 

.609375 

| 

0.859375 

I 

0.125 

0.375 

I 

0.625 

j 

0.875 

1 

0.140625 
0.15625 

1 

0.390625 
0.40625 

II 

0.640625 
0.65625 

7 

T 

0.890625 
0.90625 

il 

0.171875 

£; 

0.421875 

4; 

1 

0.671875 

0.921876 

JL 

0.1875 

T"L 

0.4375 

i. 

0.6875 

0.9375 

41 

0.203125 

II 

0.453125 

|| 

0.703125 

j. 

0.953125 

X 

0.21875 

If 

0.46875 

2: 

0.71876 

i 

0.96875 

If 

0.234375 

n 

0.484375 

|i 

0.734375 

j 

0.984376 

0.25 

I 

0.5 

0.75 

• 

1.000 

176  POWER    DEVELOPMENT    OF    SMALL    STREAMS 


Fifty  Years  of  Free  Service  in  Water  Power 
Development 

It  is  sound  business  sense  for  any  country  or  town  dweller 
near  a  small  stream  to  take  thought  of  the  stream's  possibilities, 
the  opportunity  it  has  in  it  for  the  bettering  of  his  home  or  his 
town.  Since  it  will  cost  him  nothing  to  obtain  such  valuable 
information  it  is  doubly  sound  business  sense.  Almost  a  half 
century  (since  1872)  the  Rodney  Hunt  Machine  Company, 
Orange,  Massachusetts,  U.  S.  A.,  has  maintained  that  the  good 
will  it  must  have  to  succeed  must  be  built  on  the  thorough  willing- 
ness of  its  staff  to  giVe  accurate,  complete,  dependable,  and 
friendly  help  to  those  who  need  advice  on  machinery  for  water 
power  development  and  for  various  forms  of  water  usages.  This 
information  is  available  to  anyone  at  any  time  simply  for  the 
asking.  No  matter  whether  the  person  obtaining  any  service  that 
we  can  give  buys  from  us  or  elsewhere,  this  friendly  and  reliable 
service  is  always  open  to  him.  This  policy  has  proved  its  worth 
in  nearly  a  half  century  of  painstaking  practice  and  has  developed 
a  surprising  business,  that  has  been  built  on  good  will  and  sin- 
cerity. We  will  just  as  quickly  tell  you  not  to  install  a  water 
power  plant,  if  you  have  not  the  proper  location  for  a  plant,  as 
we  would  tell  you  to  buy  a  plant,  if  you  are  situated  where  a 
water  power  plant  would  make  good.  Any  questions  on  water 
possibilities  or  problems  will  be  answered  promptly,  fully,  and 
gladly.  The  following  are  suggestions  for  questions  to  ask  in 
investigating  water  power  possibilities: 

1.  Are  you  situated  in  a  level  valley,  in  mountainous  or 
hilly  country  and  has  the  stream  many  falls,  rapids  or  riffles  where 
dams  might  be  located? 

2.  What  is  the  source  of  the  stream's  flow,  springs,  snow  in 
the  mountains? 

3.  What  is  the  approximate  flow  of  the  stream  in  cubic  feet, 
as  determined  by  the  weir  or  chip  method? 


APPENDIX  177 

4.  How  much  fall  or  head  has  the  stream,  as  determined  by 
the  dry-foot  method  ? 

5.  Does  the  stream  freeze  in  winter;  if  so,  how  is  the  volume 
of  water  affected — is  it  greatly  decreased  ? 

6.  Does  the  stream  dry  up  in  summer;   if  so  how  long  does  it 
flow? 

7.  About  how  many  acres  could  be  used  conveniently  for  a 
pond  to  store  water? 

8.  Have  you  now  a  pond  or  dam — please  give  size  and  aver- 
age depth  and  head  of  water? 

9.  Is  your  stream  subject  to  floods? 

10.  Does  your  stream  pass  a  lumber  camp? 

11.  What  kind  of  machinery  do  you  wish  to  operate? 

12.  Have   you  a    water   wheel;     if  so,  please  mention  size, 
amount  of  power  developed,  volume  of  water  the  wheel  is  using 
and  if  it  seems  to  be  developing  the  right  amount  of  power  for  the 
volume  and  head  of  water  used?     Have  you  a  trash  rack,  flume, 
penstock  or  any  other  similar  apparatus? 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

RENEWALS  ONLY— TEL.  NO.  642-3405 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 
on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 


the 


LD  21A-40m-2,'69 
(J6057slO|476—  A-32 


vr. 

GENERAL  LIBRARY -U.C.  BERKELEY 


M199210 


TC.I97 
143 


••  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


